Needs for a Domestic Vacuum Cleaner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Needs for a Domestic Vacuum Cleaner - Essay Example The Dyson DC08T is a hypoallergenic cylinder vacuum cleaner, and comes with a "lose no suction power" claims from the manufacturer. It Employs a Bagless Dust Collector, and is free-standing. In appearance, it’s cute, compact and small. The bright colorful exteriors are attractive, and the cleaner has easily maneuverable buttons. The hose pipe can be wrapped around the cleaner and hence facilitates easy storage. With a maximum volume of the dust collector of 2 Litres, it is capable of working for an extended period of time without the need to clean and restart. The cleaner however is not capable of working on a remote control mode, and also does not have the capacity to multi-function. It comes with a Telescopic wand and a turbo head for deep cleaning or using on pet hair. Before proceeding to report the actual exercise, it is appropriate to elaborate upon the layout of the cleaning area. The cleaning will be undertaken in my two-bedrooms, that have hard floors and furniture like, bed, dresser and an armchair. It will also include the living room, that too has hard floor, a Belgium carpet, and an assortment of rugs. The furniture in this room includes a fabric-furnished sofa set, a glass-topped center table, two wooden side tables, and an array of artifacts that include small sized statutes, terracotta vases, and several other similar displays. The hall houses dining table and chairs, and a couple of lounge chairs.

HR Planning 3 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

HR Planning 3 - Research Paper Example ce of support into a confined niche market.’ This forms the basis of this paper which seeks to answer the question of why rapid growing industries should hire from the outside rather than develop internally. Acquisition of knowledge and experience that does not exist in your organization about specific areas is undoubtedly a major reason for hiring from outside. Getting someone who has the expertise in what you intend to do is crucial as it will help your team rapidly speed up on time to success. This is so because an expert from outside will bring along a vast experience which will help in identifying challenges and communicating the potential outcomes which are important for rapidly changing industries. According to a new survey of 400 employers conducted by the non-profit COLLEGE FOR AMERICA (2014), study revealed that most employers preferred strongly developing existing employees as opposed to hiring from outside. However, the research also showed that the major challenge for these surveyed employers show that there is a hurdle in the lack of promotable skills to enable develop internally. According to Kristine Clerkin, the Executive Director of College for America, â€Å"American employers are almost universally in agreement about the importance of building talent and leadership within the organization. That being said, nearly nine out of ten employers report a gap where their current employees are missing key promotable skills† (COLLEGE FOR AMERICA, 2014). This study shows that there is a big problem in talent development internally owing to the gap of the missing promotable skills among employees in organizations. This has seen many employers outsource to fill this gap among its employees to enable countering the pull of the market. On the same vein, hiring enables an organization to access knowledge that could have been developed over a long time. According to research conducted by Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research from December 6 – 16 2013, â€Å"76% of

Creating an Information Security Policy

Creating an Information Security Policy Being relegated as the Chief Security Officer for the University is a requesting position and I mean to speak to the University in an expert matter. My first task is setting up and keeping up a venture wide data security program to guarantee that all data and information resources are not traded off. I will examine my arrangement to execute these obligations long with this System Security Plan. Programmers have been assaulting the University arrange framework and my first activity is to do a hazard evaluation of the University framework to find how the programmers are get to the framework. I will likewise need to re-set up framework safety efforts to secure the University organize. The Universities firewalls, interruption identification frameworks (IDSes), servers, switches, and remote get to focuses must be re-secured from any assaults. These procedures will help in securing the University from programmers focusing on a lot of delicate private and profitable data including names, locations, SSNs and other touchy and private information. The most essential assault to dispose of is the money related issues the assaults cost the University. The procedure that I plan to execute is like different Universities inside the neighborhood, Institute of Technology and Georgia State University. The first is to build up an Information Security Policy in which staff and understudies will hold fast to. In Georgia State University security arrangement states, 2006, Condition of Security. The Statutes of Georgia State University accommodate the interior administration of the University. As noted in Article VI of the Statutes, the University Senate is the body that activities the authoritative capacities managing the general instructive approach. Moreover, the obligations of an Information Systems and Technology Committee (ISAT) are sketched out in the Senate Bylaws (Article VII, Section 18), incorporate the conference on the advancement of data innovation approaches. By and by, data security approaches are produced by the Information Systems and Technology office in participation with Information Technology Security and Support Subcommittee (ITSSS) and submitted to the ISAT for input. The mission of the ITSSS is to survey and suggest arrangements, rules, and principles to empower the proceeded with accessibility and trustworthiness of the registering and system foundation. Moreover, its enrollment comprises of data innovation experts from a bunch of schools and offices. Proposed Action Items 1) Update Information Security Web nearness to incorporate grounds advisories, InfoSec occasions, arrangements/methods, and security mindfulness materials. 2) Computer Security Incident Response Team will direct intermittent audits of Information Security Policies/Procedures for their proceeding with reasonableness, ampleness, and adequacy. Georgia Tech has Information Security police in the addendum 4.1 Copyright and Intellectual Property. The approach that will be set up would tie for any infractions led by staff or understudy. The approach will cover all parts of the system security of the University. The arrangement is primarily to ensure that it secures the University, staff part, and understudies to be stay in understanding to the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (1984), Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act (1998), and Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing (CAN-SPAM) Act (2003). Since an approach will be upheld the following thing is to discover an instrument that would help with securing the University arranges. The one organization that I trust that would have the instruments to appropriately ensure the system is Trustwave. Data about the organization is given in its pdf document, Trustwave is a main supplier of data security and consistence administration answers for expansive and independent ventures all through the world. Trustwave investigates, secures and approves an associations information administration framework-from the system to the application layer-to guarantee the assurance of data and consistence with industry benchmarks and directions, for example, the PCI DSS and ISO 27002, among others. Money related organizations, huge and little retailers, worldwide electronic trades, instructive foundations, business benefit firms and government offices depend on Trustwave. The organizations answers incorporate on-request consistence administration, ov ersaw security administrations, computerized declarations and 247 multilingual supports. The organization can furnish the University with an aggregate system security framework with its Campus Network Support that comprise of Network Penetration Testing, Application Penetration Testing, Network Access Control (NAC), and Security Information and Event Management (SIEM). The organization will have the capacity to likewise give Data and Intellectual Property Protection Support by Data Loss Prevention (DLP), Encryption, Security Awareness Education (SAE), Extended Validation SSL, and Two-calculate Authentication. The cost for the item wont cost the University to a lot of a money related tie. The cost range is as taken after: TrustKeeper SSL Plus Pricing 3 Year Price 2 Year Price 1 Year Price $300.00/yr. ($900.00 total) $335.00/yr. ($670.00 total) $394.00/yr. Two Factor Authentications Digital Certificate Based Great for Remote VPN Access Free Technical Support No Tokens Free lifetime re-issuance and revocation Manage Web Site Access Low Cost Easy to administer Easy end user deployment 250 Users 3yrs $8,221/ 2yrs $9,699/ 1yrs $11,089 As I expressed before about guaranteeing that the arrangement holds fast to laws to ensure the University, staff, and understudies. Some different laws that the college should cling to in the condition of Georgia are in understanding to the Child Exploitation and Computer Crimes Unit (CEACCU), Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA), Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), Digital Millennium Act, Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA) and CDC 42CFR Part 73. The University, staff and understudies can be charge by the state or government with infractions of any of these laws. A case of this is portrayed by Rasmussen, 2011, warning for a school or college would be any of the accompanying: a recognizable proof record that seems produced or adjusted, an ID where the data recorded contrasts from what was given on the budgetary guide or confirmation application, an application that seems to have been modified or a circumstance in which a man applying for credit declines to (or intentionally does not) give distinguishing reports. The controls require schools and colleges with secured records to devise an arrangement of rules to manage and avoid circumstances that are warnings. Under the Red Flag Rules, the FTC may force common punishments (up to $2,500 per infringement) for knowing infringement of decision that constitute an example or practice. On the off chance that the FTC observes infringement of the control to be uncalled for and beguiling, the FTC may likewise utilize its power to issue restraining orders and other requirement activities. In spite of the fact that there is no private right of activity for rebelliousness with the Red Flag Rule under the FCRA, casualties of data fraud might have the capacity to bring claims under different speculations of obligation, for example, private torts. The Red Flag case is only one case of how rebelliousness could mean inconvenience for advanced education foundations. Another case by Rasmussen, 2011, If procedures arent set up to stop-or in any event restrict-an IT security break, the money related misfortunes could gather rapidly. In December 2010, The Ohio State University (OSU) advised a great many understu dies and employees that their own data was traded off by programmers who broke into a grounds server. Names, Social Security numbers, dates of birth and addresses were all at hazard. In spite of the colleges claims that there was no proof the information was really stolen, the break was still assessed to cost the college $4 million in costs identified with investigative counseling, rupture warning and charge card security. This does exclude any administrative activity that may have come about. In any case, the $4 million sticker price in the OSU break is likely quite recently the tip of the ice sheet. The 2010 Ponemon Institute U.S. Cost of a Data Breach report found that the normal information break cost organizations $214 per traded off record and arrived at the midpoint of $7.2 million for each information rupture occasion. These figures were gotten from associations that included instructive foundations, and could without a doubt apply to most colleges given their substantial client base and incomprehensible measure of direction. Moreover, the report found that it wasnt recently lost portable workstations or stolen streak drives that brought about information breaks. Ponemon found that malevolent assaults were the underlying driver of almost a third (31 percent) of the information ruptures considered. To give additional data with respect to indicting PC violations is secured under the United States Department of Justice Prosecuting Computer Crimes Computer Crime and In tellectual Property Section Criminal Division, Debilitating to Damage a Computer: 18 U.S.C.  § 1030(a)(7) Summary (Felony) 1. With aim to coerce cash or some other thing of significant worth 2. transmits in interstate or outside business a correspondence 3. containing a:threat to harm an ensured PC Or, then again risk acquiring or uncovering classified data without or in overabundance of approval or, then again. Request or demand for cash or incentive in connection to harm done regarding the coercion. The offense detail is, with purpose to blackmail from any individual any cash or other thing of significant worth, transmits in interstate or remote trade any correspondence containing any- danger to make harm a secured PC; (B) risk to acquire data from an ensured PC without approval or in abundance of approval or to impede the secrecy of data got from an ensured PC without approval or by surpassing approved get to; or (C) request or demand for cash or other thing of significant worth in connection to harm to an ensured PC, where such harm was brought on to encourage the blackmail; should be rebuffed as given in subsection (c) of this area. The punishments are: An infringement of segment 1030(a)(7) is deserving of a fine and up to five years in jail. 18 U.S.C.  § 1030(c) (3 )(A). In the event that the litigant has a past conviction under area 1030, the greatest sentence increments to 10 years detainment. 18 U.S.C.  § 1030(c)(3)(B). Certain colleges utilize diverse or similar projects for PC crime scene investigation innovation. As expressed by George State University, 2006s, Symantec LiveState Delivery venture administration programming will keep on being put into generation all through 2007. This tremendously intense apparatus can be utilized to mechanize the arrangement of patches, working frameworks, and applications. This is one framework they use to ensure and can likewise screen their framework. Another instrument is utilized by colleges, company, and governments, which is AccessData Forensic Toolkit, FTK (Forensic Toolkit). FTK is a court-acknowledged computerized examinations stage that is worked for speed, investigation and undertaking class adaptability. Known for its natural interface, email examination, adjustable information perspec tives and strength, FTK lays the structure for consistent development, so your PC legal sciences arrangement can develop with your associations needs. Also AccessData offers new development modules conveying an industry-first malware investigation capacity and cutting edge perception. These modules incorporate with FTK to make the most complete PC legal sciences stage available. The cost for the framework is FTK 4: $2,995; Cerberus Expansion Module: $2,400; Visualization Expansion Module: $999; MPE+: $3,000. The diverse working framework are Cerberus) and to analyze email and records in a completely new way (Visualizer). The Mobile Phone Examiner Plus (MPE+) adds cell phones to the collection. It yields a record that can be included specifically into a case, alongside pictures from PCs. This makes connection quick and clear. EnCase is the most generally perceived apparatuses by law-authorization and business clients. The business standard PC examination arrangement is for scientific experts who need to direct effective, forensically solid information accumulation and examinations utilizing a repeatable and faultless process. The cost is $3,000 for a corporate permit, in addition to support of the framework. EnCase has a few modules, for example, EnCase ® Smartphone Examiner which is intended for law requirement, security investigators, and e-disclosure pros who need to survey and forensically gather information from cell phone and tablet gadgets, for example, iPhone and iPad. Agents can prepare and investigate cell phone gadget information close by different sorts of advanced proof inside any Guidance Software EnCase ® item. EnCase ® Virtual File System (VFS) Module effectively mount and audit confirmation, (for example, a case, gadget, volume, or organizer) as a read-just from outside the EnCase ® Forensic condition. Valuable for confirmation audit by agents, resistance specialists, prosecutors, barrier guide, and other non-EnCaseà ƒâ€šÃ‚ ® Forensic clients. Bolsters various record frameworks and effortlessly mounts RAIDS, encoded, or compacted volumes. EnCase ® Physical Disk Emulator (PDE) Module mount a picture of a recreated hard drive or CD in read-just mode, permitting the utilization of outsider devices for extra examination. Additionally gives a stage to juries to see advanced proof in a recognizable configuration. PDE can mount drives from a few record frameworks, in spite of the fact that the substance may not be perceived by WindowsEnCase ® Decryption Suite apparatuses appropriate for decoding of circles, volumes, documents, and envelopes. Fit for decoding: Microsoft BitLocker, Microsoft BitLocker, GuardianEdge Encryption Plus/Encryption Anywhere/Hard Disk Encryption, Utimaco SafeGuard Easy, McAfee SafeBoot, WinMagic SecureDoc Full Disk Encryption, PGP Whole Disk Encryption, Microsoft Encrypting File System (EFS), CREDANT Mobile Guardian, PST (Microsoft Outlook), S/MIME encoded email in PST records, NSF (Lotus Notes), Protected capacity (ntuser.dat), Security Hive, Active Directory 2003 (ntds.dit), and others. FastBloc ® Software Edition (SE) a quick, dependable, and flexible answer for securely gain of each part of an objective hard drive even those regularly outside the working framework. You can likewise wipe or reestablish drives. Plug-n-play obtaining of IDE drives, USB thumb drives, USB and Firewire outside capacity FastBloc ® SE underpins a wide scope of famous IDE/SATA PCI controller cards, and select SCSI controllers. These are only a couple devices that colleges can utilize and the principle ones I recommend this University to use for PC legal sciences. I do trust that with the data I have given to the University that it will have incredible trust in me to deal with the position it has enlisted me for. I really do welcome this open door and work at this position. Reference Easttom, C. Taylor, J., 2011, Computer Crime, Investigation, and the Law, Cengage Learning, Mason, OH Georgia Institute of Technology, 2011, Computer Network Usage and Security Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, Rev. 4.04 http://www.oit.gatech.edu/sites/default/files/CNUSP.pdf Georgia State University, 2006, Georgia State University SYSTEM SECURITY PLAN, Georgia State University http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/csd4889.pdf Rasmussen, R., 2011, The College Cyber Security Tightrope: Higher Education Institutions Face Greater Risks, SecurityWeek Internet and Enterprise Security News, Insight Analysis http://www.securityweek.com/college-cyber-security-tightrope-higher- education-institutions-face-greater-risks U.S. Department of Justice, Prosecuting Computer Crimes Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section Criminal Division, Office of Legal Education Executive Office for United States Attorneys http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/docs/ccmanual.pdf Vacca, J.R. Rudolph, K., 2011, System Forensics, Investigation, and Response, Jones Bartlett Learning, Sudbury, MA

Do Sentences Have Identity? :: Equiformity Language Composition Papers

Do Sentences Have Identity? We study here equiformity, the standard identity criterion for sentences. This notion was put forward by Lesniewski, mentioned by Tarski and defined explicitly by Presburger. At the practical level this criterion seems workable but if the notion of sentence is taken as a fundamental basis for logic and mathematics, it seems that this principle cannot be maintained without vicious circle. It seems also that equiformity has some semantical features ; maybe this is not so clear for individual signs but sentences are often considered as meaningful combinations of signs. If meaning has to play a role, we are thus maybe in no better position than when dealing with identity criterion for propositions. In formal logic, one speaks rather about well-formed formulas, but closed formulas are called sentences because they are meaningful in the sense that they can be true or false. Formulas look better like mathematical objects than material inscriptions and equiformity does not seem to apply to t hem. Various congruencies can be considered as identities between formulas and in particular "to have the same logical form". One can say that the objects of study of logic are rather logical forms than sentences conceived as material inscriptions. 1. What is equiformity? Some logicians have rejected propositions in favour of sentences, arguing in particular that there is no satisfactory identity criterion for propositions (cf. Quine, 1970). But is there one for sentences? The idea that logic is about sentences rather than propositions and that sentences are nothing more that material inscriptions was already developed by Lesniewski, who also saw immediately the main difficulty of this conception and introduced the notion of equiformity to solve it. His attitude his well described in a footnote of one of Tarski’s famous early papers: As already explained, sentences are here regarded as material objects (inscriptions). (...) It is not always possible to form the implication of two sentences (they may occur in widely separated places). In order to simplify matters we have (...) committed an error; this consists in identifying equiform sentences (as S. Lesniewski calls them). This error can be removed by interpreting S as the set of all types of sentences (and not of sentences) and by modifying in an analogous manner the intuitive sense of other primitve concepts. In this connexion by the type of a sentence x we understand the set of all sentences which are equiform with x.

Financial Management in Non Profit Organizations

ITO-YOKADO COMPANY, LTD. M. Edgar Barrett and Christopher D. Buehler Overview The Ito-Yokado Company consisted of three business segments: Superstores and other Retail Operations (lto-Yokado superstores, Daikum discount stores, York Mart, York Benimaru, Robinson's Department Stores, and Oshman's Sporting Goods); Restaurant Operations (Denny's and Famil Restaurants); and Convenience Store Operations (7-Eleven Japan). Ito- Yokado had just acquired struggling Southland Corporation and transitional long-term strategies for Southland would have to be developed.Although diversified, Southland's largest business segment was its Stores Group responsible for operating and franchising of over 7,500 7-Eleven convenience stores. Masanori Takahashi, a senior strategy analyst for Ito-Yokado was considering the possibility that long-term strategies that had been successful in Japan also could be successful in the United States was vastly different than that of Japan; nevertheless, he was confident that through careful and thorough planning, the goal of making Southland profitable could be achieved. Learning Objectives . To acquaint students with the development of a Japanese company and its move into U. S. markets essay writer service review. 2. To acquaint students with elements of â€Å"Japanese management† through Ito-Yokado's â€Å"operation reform project† and to induce them to question the transferability of marketing across national boundaries. 3. To familiarize students with the nature of retailing in Japan buying essay papers online. 4. To show how Southland Corporation became subject to acquisition by Ito-Yokado Company, Ltd. 5. To present the nature of the convenience store industry in the United States.In mid-March 1991, Masanori Takahashi, a senior strategy analyst for Ito-Yokado Company, was preparing to depart for Dallas, Texas. Once there, he would be leading a team of Japanese and American managers responsible for establishing transitional and l ong-term strategies for the Southland Corporation. After nearly an entire year of intense bargaining and negotiation with Southland and its creditors, Ito-Yokado acquired Southland on March 5, 1991. Takahashi began working with Ito-Yokado in 1972 as an assistant manager of one of the company's superstores. He had advanced to the position of regional manager by 1979.In early 1981, Ito-Yokado's Operation Reform Project was conceived and Takahashi was asked to be a member of the team leading the project. During the first few months on the team, Takahashi quickly understood certain crucial aspects of the new project, most notably the use of point-of-sale (POS) systems. Implementation of the project advanced most rapidly in Ito-Yokado’s 7-Eleven Japan subsidiary, so he also had become familiar with the operating environment of convenience stores in Japan. As Takahashi left his Tokyo office, he could not help but feel both excitement and apprehension regarding his new position.He h ad gained confidence while involved with the successful Operation Reform Project at Ito-Yokado's superstores and 7-Eleven Japan convenience stores, but this experience might or might not prove to be useful in respect to Southland. COMPANY BACKGROUND Ito-Yokado's founder, Masatoshi Ito, was born in 1924 and graduated from a commercial high school in Yokohama. He worked briefly at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries before joining Japan's war effort in 1944. After World War II, he worked with his mother and elder brother at the family's 66-square-foot clothing store in Tokyo. 1 The store was incorporated as Kabushiki Kaisha Yokado in 1958.By 1960, Ito was in sole control of the family business. During that same year he made his first visit to the United States. In 1960, Ito visited National Cash Register (NCR) in Dayton, Ohio. While in the United States, Ito was introduced to terms such as â€Å"supermarkets† and â€Å"chain stores† by NCR, which was interested in selling cash r egisters to Japanese retailers. In Japan, retailing was dominated by mom-and-pop stores and a handful of venerable department stores, with few types of retail outlets in between. At this time, Ito began to see the possible role of mass merchandisers in a society becoming â€Å"mass-oriented. Ito soon opened a small chain of superstores in the Tokyo area. These stores carried a large selection of household goods, food, and clothing of generally lesser quality and lower price than either the mom-and-pop or department stores. ‘ By 1965, Ito had opened eight superstores. In the same year, the name of the chain was changed to Ito- Yokado. The Growth of Ito- Yokado as a Superstore Ito's concept for the superstores was centered on having the rough equivalent of several types of retail stores contained within one multistory superstore.The initial stores were located near population centers and railroad stations in the Tokyo areas. ‘ Often, several stores were located in close p roximity in order to achieve â€Å"regional dominance. † The results were high name recognition, reduced distribution costs, and the effective squeezing out of competition. Ito soon realized that social changes in Japan could create new opportunities for his retailing ideas. Younger and more mobile Japanese appeared to be less willing to spend a great deal of time shopping at numerous mom-and-pop stores. Also, the Japanese society was experiencing increased suburbanization.Ito decided to locate stores in suburban prefectures. There were 47 prefectures (provinces) in Japan. One reason for locating stores in suburban areas was the lower cost of real estate. This allowed Ito-Yokado to open larger stores with more parking spaces than competitors located in congested urban areas. Ito continued to use a strategy of â€Å"regional dominance† with these new openings, most of which were concentrated in the greater Kanto district, which consists of the Tokyo metropolitan area an d surrounding cities. By the early 1970s, Ito-Yokado stores were opening at the rate of four or five per year.By the late 1970s, nine or 10 new stores ‘were opened annually. † In early 1987, 101 of 127 Ito- Yokado superstores were located in the greater Kanto district. Ito also adopted a strategy of leasing some properties for new stores. As of the mid-1980s, more than 87 percent of Ito-Yokado's aggregate sales floor space, 10 of the company's 11 distribution centers, and the company headquarters in Tokyo were all leased? Often, property prices were astronomical, or the owners of well-located sites would not part with their property for any price. Constraints on GrowthThe initial success of Ito-Yokado and the other superstores soon resulted in retaliatory action by a powerful competitor: the mom-and-pop store owners. These small retailers were said to â€Å"pull the strings of Liberal Democratic Party politicians at the local level. †8 The action initiated by the small retailers resulted in the 1974 Large Store Restriction Act, which was subsequently strengthened in 1979. The original act restricted the opening of stores with sales areas of more than 1,500 square meters (16,500 square feet). In addition, the act restricted the hours of operation of new and existing large stores.A series of changes in 1979 added restrictions on stores with sales areas greater than 500 square meters (5,500 square feet). A Commerce Coordination Committee was established in each area in order to set policy regarding large-store openings and hours of operation. The committees were effectively controlled by the small retailers. By the early 1980s, Ito-Yokado was opening only four or five new stores annually. † Factors other than the Large Store Restriction Act adversely affected Ito-Yokado. Japanese consumers' real disposable income decreased by a little more than 1 percent during 1980-1981. 0 Japan experienced a general economic downturn in the early 1980s, as did the rest of the world, again serving to limit consumer purchasing power. Net income for Ito- Yokado-which had grown almost 30 percent per year between 1976 and 1981-grew by 9. 7 percent in 1982 and by 0. 9 percent in 1983. 11 The legal restrictions imposed on large stores, when combined with the economic downturn, led to both lower current earnings and a projection of reduced rates of growth in future earnings. Ito-Yokado as a Parent Company During the early 1970s, Ito began pursuing new retailing interests.In 1972, he approached Dallas-based Southland Corporation in an attempt to secure a license to operate 7-Eleven stores in Japan. He was rebuffed. He made a similar attempt in 1973 with the aid of a Japanese trading company, C. Ito and Company, and was successful in obtaining the license. Concurrently, Ito was pursuing another U. S. firm, Denny's Restaurants, in an attempt to obtain rights for opening Denny's Restaurants in Japan. Both subsidiaries, Denny's Japan and 7-Ele ven Japan (originally called York Seven but renamed 7-Eleven Japan in 1978), were established in 1973.The first 7-Eleven and the initial Denny's in Japan were both opened in 1974. Stock for each of the two majority- owned subsidiaries was traded independently on the Tokyo Stock Exchange. Both subsidiaries became profitable around 1977. ITO-YOKADO IN THE 1980s The Ito-Yokado group consisted of three business segments: Superstores and other Retail Operations, Restaurant Operations, and Convenience Store Operations. The Convenience Store Operations segment was made up of 7-Eleven Japan. The Restaurant Operations segment consisted of Denny's and Famil Restaurants.Ito-Yokado super- stores, Daikuma discount stores, two supermarket chains (York Mart and York-Benimaru), Robinson's Department Stores, and Oshman's Sporting Goods Store made up the Super-stores and other Retail Operations segment. Ito-Yokado's financial statements are shown in Exhibits 1 through 3 in separate attachments. SUPER STORES AND OTHER RETAIL OPERATIONS York Mart and York-Benimaru York Mart was a wholly owned subsidiary established in 1975. In 1990, it operated 40 supermarkets located primarily in the Tokyo area.These stores sold mainly fresh foods and packaged goods, and competition was high in this geographic and retail area. Ito- Yokado's Operation Reform Program was implemented by York Mart in 1986 as a means to boost efficiency and profits. By 1990 sales were increasing at 6 percent per year. See Exhibit 3. Is York-Benimaru was a 29-percent-owned affiliate of to-Yokado, and was an independently managed regional supermarket chain. York-Benimaru operated 51 stores as of 1988. The stores were located in the Fukushima prefecture of Koriyama-city in northern Japan. Like York Mart, York-Benimaru operated with a higher profit margin than the supermarket industry as a whole. York-Benimaru's earnings growth rate of 13 percent per year was expected to last into the 1990s, and Ito-Yokado's share of this profit was the major contribution to the â€Å"equity in earnings of affiliates† portion of Ito- Yokado's income statement (see Exhibit 2). Daikuma Daikuma discount stores were consolidated into the Ito-Yokado group in 1986, when Ito-Yokado's ownership of Daikuma increased from 47. 6 percent to 79. 5 percent. † In 1990, Daikuma was one of the largest discount store chains in Japan with 14 stores.Although Daikuma was popular among young Japanese consumers, the discount stores attracted the critical attention of competing small retailers. Because the discount stores were regulated by the Large Store Regulation Act, intensive effort was required to open new stores. Despite these circumstances, and increasing competition, Daikuma opened two discount stores in 1989. Robinson's Department Stores In 1984, the Robinson's Japan Company was established to open Robinson's Department Stores in Japan. The Robinson's name was used under the terms of a license granted by the U.S. sto re of the same name. The Japanese company was wholly owned by Ito-Yokado, and the first Robinson's Department Store in Japan was opened in November 1985 in Kasukabe City of Saitama Prefecture. This was a residential com- munity north of Tokyo and was a rapidly growing area. Although an Ito- Yokado super- store was located nearby, Ito-Yokado's management believed that a niche existed for a slightly more upscale retail store. Ito-Yokado had â€Å"shattered traditional wisdom by opening up a department store in the suburbs, not in the center of Tokyo. 21 The location was expected to serve a population area of more than 600,000 residents and to offer a broad selection of consumer goods at prices higher than superstores yet lower than the downtown Tokyo department stores. ~ Many of the strategies employed by Ito-Yokado in opening its Robinson's Department Store followed similar strategies employed in its superstores. The land was leased (in a suburb). Instead of purchasing goods on a co nsignment basis as most other department stores did, Robinson's managers were made responsible for the outright purchase of goods from suppliers.This allowed Robinson's to purchase goods at a significantly reduced price. Robinson's reported its first profit in fiscal 1989, approximately four years after opening. † In contrast, most Japanese department stores operate approximately 10 years before reporting a profit. The single Robinson's location grossed about ? 28 billion (US$220 million) in fiscal 1989. 24 The second Robinson's Department Store opened in late 1990 in Utsunomiya, about 100 kilometers (60 miles) north of Tokyo. Oshman's Sporting GoodsIto-Yokado licensed the Oshman's Sporting Goods name from the Houston, Texas, parent company in 1985. That year, two stores were opened. One of the stores was located inside the original Robinson's Department Store. RESTAURANT OPERATIONS The Famil Restaurant chain was started in 1979 as an in-store restaurant to serve customers at Ito-Yokado superstores. It had; however, expanded to 251 locations by 1988. 25 The Famil chain did not record its first positive earnings until 1986. In Famil's attempts to expand operations, the company had emphasized its catering business. By 1990, the in-store operations (those located in Ito- Yokado superstores) accounted for 45 percent of Famil's sales, the catering business accounted for 32 percent of sales, and freestanding stores accounted for 23 percent of sales. † Denny's Japan Ito-Yokado opened the initial Denny's (Japan) Restaurant in 1974 with a license from Denny's of La Mirada, California. Ito-Yokado tailored the U. S. family restaurant to the Japanese market, and Denny's Japan became profitable around 1977. By 1981, 100 Denny's Japan restaurants had been established. † and in 1990 there were 320 such restaurants operated by Ito-Yokado. In 1990, Ito-Yokado controlled 51 percent of Denny's Japan stock. In the early 1980s. Ito-Yokado decided that Denny's Jap an should purchase all rights to the Denny's name in Japan. The purchase was made in 1984, and royalty payments to the U. S. parent were thereby discontinued. In fiscal year 1990 (March 1989 to February 1990), Denny's Japan reported a net annual sales increase of 10. 9 percent, as compared with the 4. 9 percent Japanese restaurant industry sales increase for the same period= Exhibits 4 and 5 contain financial statements for Denny's Japan.In 1988, Denny's Japan began using an electronic order-entry system, which allowed managers of individual restaurants to quickly order food sup- plies based on trends in their own restaurants. It also allowed for the periodic updating of menus to reflect new food items. See exhibits 4 and 5. CONVENIENCE STORE OPERATIONS 7-Eleven Japan Since the opening of the first 7-Eleven store in 1974, the chain had grown to more than 4,300 stores located in virtually all parts of Japan by February 1990. 32 At that time, about 300 new stores were being opened ann ually.Ito-Yokado owned approximately 50. 3 percent of 7-Eleven Japan in 1990. Originally, young urban workers represented the primary customer base. As 7-Eleven penetrated the Japanese market, however, almost everyone became a potential customer. In Tokyo, for example, utility bills could be paid at the chain's stores. The 7-Eleven stores were small enough, with an average of only 1,000 square feet, to effectively avoid regulation under the Large Store Regulation Act. This allowed 7- Eleven to compete with the mom-and-pop retailers on the basis of longer hours of operation and lower prices.Faced with this competition, many of the small retailers joined the ranks of 7-Eleven. By converting small retailers to 7-Eleven stores, Ito-Yokado was able to expand rapidly and blanket the country† 7-Eleven Japan pursued a strategy of franchising stores instead of owning them. The franchise commission for 7-Eleven stores was approximately 45 percent of the gross profit of the store (the co mmission was 43 percent for 24-hour stores). Ito-Yokado provided most of the ancillary functions for each store (e. g. , administration, accounting, advertising, and 80 percent of utility costs).In 1987, 92 percent of all 7-Eleven stores in Japan were franchised. † and by 1990, only 2 percent of the 7-Elevens were corporate owned. † Within the Ito-Yokado group, 7-Eleven contributed 6. 8 percent of revenues in 1990. With this relatively small portion of overall corporate revenues, however, 7- Eleven Japan contributed more than 35 percent of the group's profit. Under its licensing agreement, 7-Eleven Japan paid royalties of 0. 6 percent of gross sales to the Southland Corporation. In 1989 and 1990, 7-Eleven Japan paid royalties of about $4. 1 million and $4. million, respectively. The financial statements for 7-Eleven Japan for the years 1986 to 1990 are shown in Exhibits 6 and 7. OPERATION REFORM PROJECT Ito-Yokado implemented the Operation Reform Project in late 1981 in a retail industry environment punctuated by reduced consumer spending and decreasing margins. The goals of the project were to increase efficiency and boost profitability by increasing the inventory turn while avoiding empty store shelves. The plan was originally implemented in the Ito- Yokado Superstores and the 7- Eleven Japan convenience stores.The implementation of the project involved a coordinated effort of catering to rapidly changing consumer preferences while, simultaneously, monitoring merchandise flow more closely. This coordination was accomplished by making individual store managers more responsible for such decisions as what merchandise was to be stocked on store shelves, thus allowing managers to tailor merchandise selection in their individual stores to local preferences. Top Ito-Yokado regional managers held weekly meetings with store managers to monitor the implementation of the project.As late as 1988, these meetings were still held on a weekly basis. † In o rder to avoid depletion of store stocks, Ito-Yokado established an on-line ordering system with vendors. In 1982, the ordering system reached only 400 vendors. By 1988, however, the system linked Ito- Yokado with 1,860 vendors. Point-of-Sale System As implementation of the Operation Reform Project began, Ito-Yokado paid increased attention to the importance of obtaining information regarding the flow of merchandise through individual stores. The tool chosen to accomplish this task was the point-of-sale system.POS system usage was increasing in the United States in the early 1980s, but the systems were used primarily to increase productivity at the cash register. In contrast, Ito- Yokado used similar systems as a part of the project by monitoring specific merchandise flow. As of the late 1980s, many retailers in the United States had begun utilizing POS in similar capacities, and some had begun to use POS to track the purchases of individual consumers. The first use of POS systems in Japan came in 1982, when 7-Eleven Japan began installing them in its stores. By 1986, every 7-Eleven store in Japan was equipped with such a system. The systems available were sophisticated enough to monitor the entire stock of merchandise in a typical convenience store having about 3,000 items. ‘ The systems could monitor the flow of every item of merchandise through the purchase, inventory, sale, and restocking stages. In late 1984, Ito-Yokado decided to install POS systems in the superstores. The sophistication of those systems installed in convenience stores, however, was not adequate to handle the merchandise flow of a superstore, which could stock up to 500,000 items. † New POS systems were developed n a coordinated effort by Ito-Yokado, Nippon Electric, and Nomura Computer Services. The installation of POS systems in the existing superstores was completed in November 1985, with more than 8,000 POS registers installed in 121 stores. † With 138 stores in 1990 , Ito-Yokado had an estimated 9,000 POS registers in the superstores alone. In 1986, after the systems had been installed in all superstores and 7-Elevens, Ito- Yokado accounted for about 70 percent of the POS systems in use in Japan as of 1988; 7-Eleven Japan was the only major convenience store chain in Japan to have installed POS systems. By August 31, 1989, Japan had 119,137 POS scanner-equipped registers in 42,880 stores, making it the country with the most POS systems in use. † The POS systems used by 7-Eleven Japan and Ito-Yokado superstores were upgraded in 1986 to add a new dimension to Ito-Yokado's Operation Reform Project. The upgraded systems allowed for bidirectional communication with the company headquarters. This feature essentially allowed information to flow not only from individual stores to a central location, but also from the central location back to individual stores.By linking the central system to other computer systems, more information than just sale s of retail items could be transmitted. This capability allowed Ito-Yokado to increase the efficiency of deliveries by centralizing some orders. By increasing the total size of orders, Ito-Yokado increased its bargaining position with distributors. One result of this bargaining strength was more frequent deliveries of smaller volume. From 1987 to 1988, deliveries increased from one to three per week for stores in many regions of Japan, notably the Tokyo, Hokkaido, and Kyushu areas.Using the POS systems, 7-Eleven began to offer customers door-to-door parcel delivery in conjunction with Nippon Express. In addition, some POS terminals were being used to issue prepaid telephone credit cards+' Since October 1987, Tokyo-area customers had been able to pay their electric bills at 7-Eleven; since March 1988, they had also been able to pay their gas bills Women traditionally manage household finances in Japan, so these services were designed to attract more women customers to the convenience stores. Results For the Ito-Yokado superstores alone, average days of inventory decreased from 25. in 1982 to 17. 3 in 1987. By 1990, it was estimated to be 13 days. The effect on operating margins and net income for the entire Ito-Yokado Corporation was equally dramatic. In 1982, the company's operating margin stood at 5. 1 percent. It had increased to 8. 1 per- cent by 1987. By 1990, the operating margin had climbed to 10. 5 percent. Net income for the corporation increased from ? 14,662 million in 1982 to ? 34,649 million in 1987, and ? 58,465 million in 1990. 7-Eleven Japan recorded similar increases in operating margins and net income during the same period.In 1982, 7-Eleven Japan's operating margin was 20. 7 percent. It had increased to 34. 6 percent by 1987. Net income from the 7-Eleven operations increased from ? 7,837 million in 1982 to ? 33,000 million in 1987. As of 1990, the Ito-Yokado Corporation was the second largest retailer in Japan, with ? 1,664,390 million of ann ual gross sales. The leading retailer was Daiei, with ? 2,114,909 million of revenues. Ito- Yokado was, however, the most profitable retailer in Japan, with net income of ? 58,465 million. In comparison, Daiei recorded net income of only ? 9,457 million for 1990.Financial statements for Daiei are shown as Exhibits 8 and 9. THE SOUTHLAND CORPORATION The Southland Corporation began in Dallas, Texas, in 1927 when Claude S. Dawley consolidated several small Texas ice companies into the Southland Ice Company. This new company was under the direction of 26-year-old Joe C. Thompson, Sr. Under Thompson's guidance, Southland began to use its retail outlets (curb service docks) to sell products in addition to ice, such as watermelon, milk, bread, eggs, and cigarettes. With the addition of these products, the concept of the convenience store was born.During the Great Depression and the 1940s, Southland's convenience store business added several more products, including gasoline, frozen foods, beauty products, fresh fruit and vegetables, and picnic supplies. Because the store opened at 7 AM and remained open till 11 PM, the store name 7-Eleven was adopted during this time. The 1950s were a period of substantial growth in terms of the number of stores and of 7-Eleven's geographical coverage. The first stores located outside of Texas were opened in Florida in 1954. During the same year, 7-Eleven's operating profit surpassed the $1 million mark for the first time.By 1959, the entire 7-Eleven empire constituted 425 stores in Texas, Louisiana, Florida, and several other East Coast states. John Thompson became president of Southland when his father, Jodie Thompson, died in 1961. During the 1960s, a population migration toward the suburbs and changing lifestyles presented Southland with new growth opportunities. John Thompson lead Southland on the path of expansion, and more than 3,000 stores were opened in the decade. The product line of 7-Eleven also grew during this time to i nclude prepared foods, rental items, and some self-service gasoline pumps.The 1970s were also a period of achievement for Southland. In 1971, the $1 billion sales mark was surpassed. Southland- stock began trading on the New York Stock Exchange in 1972, and the 5,OOOth store was opened in 1974. It was at this time that Masatoshi Ito approached Southland with the prospect of franchising 7-Eleven stores in Japan. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Southland's activities became more diversified. In 1986, the company had four operating groups: the Stores Group, the Dairies Group, the Special Operations Group, and the Gasoline Supply Division.The Stores Group represented the largest of the operating groups in terms of sales through the 1980s. The Stores Group was responsible for the operating and franchising of convenience stores. At the end of 1985, there were 7,519 7-Eleven stores in most of the United States and five provinces of Canada. This group was also responsible for 84 Gristede' s and Charles & Company food stores. 38 Super-7 outlets, and 7-Eleven stores operated under area licensees in the United States, Canada, and several Pacific Rim countries, including Japan.The Dairies Group was one of the nation's largest dairy processors in 1986 and served primarily the Stores Group, although aggressive marketing in the 1980s targeted service to institutional dairy needs. This group operated in all of the United States and parts of Canada. The Special Operations Group consisted of Chief Auto Parts (acquired in 1979); Pate Foods (a snack food company): Reddy Ice (the world's largest ice company); and Tidel Systems (a manufacturer of cash dispensing units and other retailer equipment).The Gasoline Supply Division was formed in 1981 to serve the gasoline requirements of the more than 2,800 7-Eleven stores handling gasoline. This division's history was punctuated by the 1983 acquisition of Cities Service Refining, Marketing, and Transportation businesses (CITGO) from Oc cidental Petroleum. Southland's Recent Activities Southland's dramatic growth and diversification during the 1970s and early 1980s resulted in 7-Eleven having a dominant position in the convenience store industry.Despite this position, circumstances since the mid-1980s had greatly eroded 7-Eleven and Southland's strengths. The oil price collapse of early 1986 was the sharpest drop of crude oil prices in history. The instability of crude oil and wholesale refined products, coupled with CITGO's inventory methods and various write-downs, resulted in only modest income for a previously very profitable company. The volatility of CITGO's financial position greatly affected Southland's earnings. Southland's equity interest in CITGO contributed to a $52 million loss for the entire corporation in 1986.In order to reduce the impact of an unstable crude oil market and the accompanying volatility of CITGO's earnings, South- land entered into a joint venture with Petroleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) i n late 1986. The joint venture with PDVSA had several components. Southland sold a half- interest in CITGO to a subsidiary of PDVSA for $290 million. In addition, PDVSA agreed to both supply CITGO with a minimum of 130,000 barrels of crude oil per day and pro- vide its share of CITGO's working capital requirements. A takeover attempt of Southland occurred in April 1987.Canadian financier Samuel Belzberg approached the Southland board of directors with an offer of $65 per share of common stock. Unwilling to relinquish control of Southland, the Thompson family tendered $77 per share for two-thirds of the outstanding shares in July 1987. The other third of the shares would be purchased at $61 per share (plus $16 per share of new preferred shares) by the would-be private Southland Corporation. Financing for this acquisition came from $2 billion in loans from a group of banks and a $600 million bridge loan from Goldman, Sachs and Salomon Brothers. An additional $1. billion was generated by the issue of subordinated debentures Gunk bonds) in November 1987. This occurred after the stock and junk bond markets crashed in October 1987. Southland's investment bankers had to sell the bonds at a blended rate of almost 17 percent, instead of the anticipated rate of 14. 67 percent. The Thompson family emerged from the buyout owning 71 percent of Southland at a total cost of $4. 9 billion. Paying the High Costs of a Leveraged Buyout After Southland had been taken private through the leveraged buyout (LBO), significant changes occurred in both Southland and 7-Eleven operations.Southland was restructured, with the elimination of two levels of middle managers. During this time, Southland began selling more 7-Eleven stores than it opened in the United States and Canada. Due to the increased number of licensees opening stores overseas, however, the total number of stores worldwide continued to increase. 7-Eleven Japan was primarily responsible for this increase, with the opening o f 340 stores in 1988 and 349 stores in 1989. Southland also divested itself of many large assets in the 1988 to 1990 period (see Exhibit 10).Significant in this group of divestments were the entire Dairy Group, more than 100 7-Eleven stores in the continental United States, Southland's remaining interest in CITGO (sold to PDVSA), and 7-Eleven Hawaii, (purchased by 7-Eleven Japan). In November 1989, 7-Eleven Japan purchased 58 stores and additional properties from Southland. These properties and stores, which were located in Hawaii, were exchanged for $75 million in cash. The 58 convenience stores were organized as 7- Eleven Hawaii, which was established as a subsidiary of 7-Eleven Japan.As of December 31,1990, Southland operated 6,455 7-Eleven convenience stores in the United States and Canada, 187 High's Dairy Stores, and 63 Quick Mart and Super-7 Stores. Southland owned 1,802 properties on which 7-Eleven stores were located. Another 4,643 7-Eleven stores in the United States and C anada were leased. In addition the company possessed 234 store properties held for sale, of which 109 were unimproved. 77 were closed stores! and 48 were excess properties adjoining store locations. Three of Southland's four food-processing facilities were owned (the other was leased).The company owned six properties in the United States on which distribution centers were located. Five of the six distribution centers were company owned. Until December 1990 the company had also owned its corporate headquarters (called City- place) located near downtown Dallas. 59 Financial statements for Southland Corporation are shown in Exhibits 11 and 12. THE PROPOSED PURCHASE OF SOUTHLAND BY ITO-YOKADO The divestments of 1988, 1989, and 1990 constituted attempts by Southland to generate sufficient cash to service the massive debt incurred from the LBO of 1987.By early 1990, however, it was apparent that the cash generated from these divestments and Southland's operations was not sufficient to cov er its interest expense. Some experts estimated that Southland's cash shortfalls would reach $89 million in 1990 and more than $270 million in 1991. 60 Southland's long-term debt still totaled about $3. 7 billion, and interest expense alone in the first three quarters of 1989 was almost $430 million. † In March of 1990, Southland announced that it was seeking â€Å"rescue† by Ito-Yokado. Proposed Acquisition of Southland by Ito- YokadoSouthland had â€Å"looked at possibilities of receiving assistance from other U. S. companies, but decided that†¦ Ito-Yokado was the best potential partner. â€Å"63 The original proposal would have resulted in Ito-Yokado receiving 75 percent ownership of Southland for $400 million. This proportion of Southland would be split between Ito- Yokado and 7- Eleven Japan, with 7- Eleven Japan obtaining two-thirds of the 75 percent share. The deal was contingent on Southland's ability to swap its outstanding publicly traded debt for stock and zero-coupon (non-interest-bearing) bonds.The publicly traded debt amounted to approximately $1. 8 billion. There were five classes of public debt, ranging in type and interest paid. The interest rate of the bonds varied from 13. 5 percent to 18 percent. Ito-Yokado's offer was also contingent on 95 percent of all bond- holders of each public debt issue accepting the swap. Under this original proposal, the Thompson family would retain a 15 percent stake in Southland, and the remaining 10 percent of the company would be held by bondholders.The original proposal had a deadline of June 14, 1990, at which time either Ito- Yokado or Southland could cancel the agreement. Neither party indicated that such action would be taken, even though Southland's bondholders balked at the swap proposal. A bigger problem was facing the two companies: a rapidly approaching interest payment due on June 15, 1990. Southland's failure to pay the $69 million payment would result in Southland having a 30-d ay grace period in which to compensate bond- holders. At the end of the 30-day period, unpaid bondholders could try to force South- land into bankruptcy court. Revisions to the Proposed Buyout Southland did not make its scheduled interest payment that was due on June 15, 1990. Bondholders, meanwhile, had shown little regard for the original deal struck between Ito-Yokado and Southland. Three more revisions of the proposed debt restructuring and terms for the buyout were submitted between mid-June and mid-July 1990. In each revision, either Ito- Yokado's or the Thompson family's stake in Southland was reduced and the share of Southland stock offered to bondholders increased.With each revision came increased bondholder support, yet this support was far short of either the two-thirds majority (as required in Chapter 11 restructuring cases) or the 95 percent acceptance rate dictated by Ito-Yokado, As revisions were submitted, the expiration dates of the debt restructuring and stock purc hase by Ito- Yokado were extended. On July 16, a bondholder filed suit against Southland for failure to pay interest on June 15, because on July 15 Southland's grace period had expired. By September 12, a majority of bondholders had tendered their notes. This majority was still far short, however, of the 95 percent swap requirement dictated by Ito-Yokado. The deadlines were extended to September 25 for both the debt swap offer by Southland and the stock purchase offer by Ito-Yokado. As Southland was apparently headed for involuntary bankruptcy filing under Chapter 11, the proposal again seemed in jeopardy. Acceptance of the Proposed Buyout The deadline for Southland's debt swap offer was again extended. Bondholder approval was finally obtained in late October.Ito-Yokado's offer to buyout Southland was extended to March 15, 1991, pending court approval of the prepackaged bankruptcy dea1. The bankruptcy-court petition for approval of the prepackaged debt restructuring was filed on Oct ober 24,1990. Although Southland did not have sufficient bondholder approval as dictated by Ito-Yokado, the bankruptcy court proceedings were swift. The last few bondholders who held out were placated in January when the Thompsons relinquished warrants for half of their 5 percent stake of Southland's stock. † On February 21, 1991, the U. S. ankruptcy court in Dallas approved the reorganization of Southland.?! At that time, at least 93 per- cent of the holders of each class of debt issued by Southland had approved the reorganization. On March 5, 1991, Ito-Yokado purchased 71 percent of Southland's stock for $430 million. Two-thirds of this stock was purchased by 7-Eleven Japan, and the other third purchased directly by Ito-Yokado. The terms of the accepted debt-restructuring agreement between Southland and its bondholders are shown in Exhibit 13. THE CONVENIENCE STORE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATESThe convenience store industry in the United States changed dramatically during th e decade of the 1980s. The number of convenience stores in the United States, the gross sales of these stores, and the gross margins all increased during this time period. The net income of convenience stores, however, decreased significantly. This outcome was largely the result of the rapid expansion of several chains of convenience stores and the increased number of convenience stores opened by oil companies. Aggregate Measures of the Industry The number of convenience stores grew from about 39,000 in 1982 to more than 70,000 in 1989.From 1985 to 1989, industry sales increased from $51. 4 billion to $67. 7 billion, an increase of 6. 3 percent per year. Gross margins increased from 22. 8 percent in 1985 to 26. 2 percent by 1988. Despite such growth, convenience store operations experienced a decrease in net profit in the late 1980s. The total industry pretax profit peaked in 1986 at $1. 4 billion, fell to $1. 16 billion in 1988, and plummeted to $271 million in 1989. Some trends ar e shown in Exhibit 14. The expansion of convenience stores in the 1980s was led by large convenience store chains and oil companies.In addition to the growth experienced by the Southland Corporation's 7-Eleven, Circle-K, a Phoenix-based convenience store chain, expanded from 1,200 stores in 1980 to 4,700 stores in 1990. The Role of the Oil Companies The impact of oil companies on the convenience store industry had been significant. Virtually all of the major U. S. oil companies began combining convenience store operations with gasoline stations in order to boost profits. In 1984, Exxon opened its first combination convenience store and gas station. By 1989, it had 500.Texaco operated 950Food Marts in the same year. From 1984 to 1989, the number of convenience stores operated by oil companies increased from 16,000 to 30,000. Gasoline sold at a lower margin (about 6 percent in 1984) than nongasoline convenience store products (32 percent in the same year), so the sale of convenience s tore items presented an opportunity for those gas stations with good locations (i. e. , street comers) to increase profits. In order to capitalize on the potential for higher profits in retailing, the major oil companies boosted their marketing expenditures.In 1979, the petroleum industry spent about $2. 2 billion for their marketing efforts. By 1988, these expenditures were almost $5 billion. The convenience stores operated by oil companies were growing in both number and size. In 1986, only about 20 percent of the oil company convenience stores were 1,800 or more square feet in size (the size of about 90 percent of traditional convenience stores). By 1990, however, more than 50 percent of the oil company convenience stores were between 1,800 and 3,000 square feet in size. â€Å"? Merchandise Trends for Convenience StoresBecause of the intensified retailing efforts of oil companies and large convenience store chains, some trends (other than those mentioned previously) evolved. In 1985, gasoline accounted for 35. 4 percent of convenience store sales. By 1989, gasoline accounted for 40 percent of sales. † The gross profit margin for gasoline sales had increased from 7. 3 per- cent to 11. 7 percent more than the same period. â€Å"? Of the 61,000 convenience stores in the United States in 1985,55 percent sold gasoline, and in 1989, 65 percent of 70,200 convenience stores sold gasoline.In 1989, 75 percent of the new convenience stores built were equipped to sell gasoline. † Although gasoline sales and margins became an increasingly significant contributor to convenience store revenues, contributions of revenue from other merchandise stagnated. In 1985, merchandise (other than gasoline) sales for the convenience store industry amounted to $33. 2 billion. In 1,989, sales reached $40. 6 billion. † This increase in merchandise sales, however, was offset by the large number of store openings. In 1985, the average yearly merchandise sales per store was $544,000.This number increased to only $578,000 in 1989. THE SETTING While flying from Japan to the United States, Takahashi reflected on the success that both Ito-Yokado and 7-Eleven Japan had enjoyed over the course of many years. These achievements were the result of long-term strategies that were carefully tailored to the Japanese market. Could these same, or similar, strategies be the foundation for making Southland financially successful again? He realized that the convenience store industry in the United States was vastly different from that of Japan.Nevertheless, he was confident that, through careful and thorough planning, the goal of making Southland profitable could be achieved. -11 pts if late (after 6pm of due date) and additional -5pts for each day thereafter for max late points of -26 pts. Lists the Strengths / Weaknesses/ Opportunities / Threats for the Ito-Yokado Company (total 10 pts) SWOT analysis. Strengths (list and briefly discuss only 3) 1 pt each for tota l of 3 pts. SWOT, defined as the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats is an organizational tool used to analyze core competencies of a business.And like most businesses the Ito-Yokado Group consisting of three business segment (superstores and retail operations, restaurants operations, and convenience store operations) is no different. The strategies used to expand its operations Point of sale register, diversified portfolio, name(branding) and strategic location Weaknesses (list and briefly discuss only 2) 1 pt each for total of 2 pts Opportunities (list and briefly discuss only 2) 1 pt each for total of 2 pts The need for new ideas, real estates, the most vulnerable (younger generation) Threats (list and briefly discuss only 3) 1 pt each for total of 3 pts.The threats faced by the Ito-Yokado Group are: competition from mom and pops store, decrease in disposable income and Large Store Restriction Acts. As discussed in the article, the Large Store Restriction Acts influen ce by rival competitors makes it challenging for the organization to cater to its consumer needs. The result is not only deprived customer, but decrease in revenue, as the laws restrict the size of the store, making it impossible to grow different variety in store products.Another threat is consumer income, the limited consumer income, means consumer has limited amount for discretionary spending. And last but not least is the competition from mom and pops stores. These types of small businesses despite their sizes can pose a real threat for large companies such as 7-Eleven, reason being, is the fact that they are better known and rooted within the community. Essay questions to be answered in detail. (18 pts for each question for total of 90 pts) 1.What were some of the primary reasons for Ito-Yokado's remarkable degree of success during the past several decades? Globalization in my opinion was one of the biggest factors in the company success. Today’s market makes fierce comp etition therefore businesses no longer can afford to operate locally. In order for them to be successful, they must join the rest of the world in forming partnership through Joint Ventures, Franchising, Licensing, and Foreign Subsidiaries. While the advantages of globalization exist, it is not without its disadvantages.The transformation of a company from a local organization into a transnational organization is not an easy task mainly because of the various laws, time, efforts, and monetary investment that one must be able to shoulder before taking on such venture. The factors listed include, but are not limited to political stability, relationship between the two countries, licenses fees, market responsiveness, and the cost can determine the successfulness of a business. In addition, the careful planning and leadership ability can also determine whether or not a business can make the transformation successfully.As a leader one of the primary goals is to have a vision that can be c ommunicated down the chain. And as demonstrated by Ito-Yokado, he clearly demonstrated his vision for the company by strategically expanding the company’s operations into three different segment ranging from retail stores, restaurants chain and convenient stores. The result was a diversified portfolio with increase revenue. Another reason of success can be measured by the risk decision made by the company’s leaders. With any operation whether personal or professional, one must be willing to take isk, a risk in which the benefits outweigh the cost. Although the transformation from the Japanese market to the American was uncertain, because of factors such as consumer responsiveness, income, laws and applicable regulations, the decisions to invest into the various markets was worthwhile all because of proper planning and market response. The result was a successful Ito-Yokado group. 2. How did Ito-Yokado’s 7-Eleven Japan differ from Southland's 7-Eleven operations during the 1980s? While the two shares the same name the difference in their operations where obvious.The 7-Eleven in Japan compared to that of Southland differ in their operation that is, the door-to-door parcel delivery by Nippon, the convenience of bill pay for its customers, faster growth opportunities through franchising. Because of the Large Store Restriction Act, the company was limited in growth to expand its physical location; as a result, they resort to a smaller size stores strategically located in suburban areas. This venture was a deliberate marketing strategy used to penetrate the most vulnerable areas (suburbs) and fight off competitions brought on by the moms and pops stores.While the 7-Japan thrive in its operations of smaller stores with over 3000 items with point of sales register, their counterpart was not far behind. Under the leadership of John Thompson, the 7-Eleven in Southland were able to operate convenience stores with expanded products and services includ ing; low cost gasoline, and prepared food. Despite troubles with the oil industry, the 7-Eleven of Southland was able to form a partner with Oil Company such as CITGO and largest ice producer Reddy Ice. The result was a perfect union that brought about increase revenues.The union however, was short lived, as the company profit plummeted and had to file for bankruptcy. 3. What are Ito-Yokado and Z-Eleven Japan getting for their $430 million? 4. What is your prognosis for Southland under Ito-Yokado ownership? Will Ito-Yokado be successful? Based on the article, it is apparent the management and leadership of Ito-Yokado Group are making the right decisions and stirring the company in the right direction. This is evident through it increase franchising of stores and increase revenue. While the Group might be successful in Japan, areful consideration must be given to the market in the United States. As noted in the reading, the Southland Group under the leadership of John Thompson has ha d its share of misfortune mainly because of the oil industry. The fall in oil prices and volatility of the market resulted in loss of profit and buyout. While the venture of acquiring Southland Group, Ito-Yokado, must ensure it does it homework, with proper study of the US market. They must also, realize that the US market is one of capitalism with fierce competition.Unlike Japan, there are no such rules as the Large Store Restriction Act, as long as the proper conditions are met with the right paperwork, a business can expand as necessary. Another determining factor is the need for the product. yes the idea to expand is great! However, is it cost effective or will the company be better off 5. Is 1to-Yokado a global company? Explain your answer. The answer whether Ito-Yokado was a global company would be yes based on the fact that the company operate in more than one country with various subsidiaries.Ito-Yokado, will be consider Multinational Corporation simply because the operation and production of its products and services were done both in the United States and Japan. In addition the trading of its stocks was offered on both the NYSE, and the Japanese trading markets, thereby influencing the economy of both nations. Another important factor is the fact that nowadays, globalization makes it almost impossible for businesses to operate locally. For this reason they must be willing and able to compete on a global stage with numerous   

Animal Defenses

nimalDefenses Animal AnimAl BehAvior t Animal Communication Animal Courtship Animal Defenses Animal Hunting and Feeding Animal Life in Groups Animal Migration Defenses ChristinA WilsDon Animal Animal Behavior: Animal Defenses Copyright ? 2009 by Infobase Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher.For information, contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wilsdon, Christina. Animal defenses / Christina Wilsdon. p. cm. — (Animal behavior) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60413-089-8 (hardcover) 1. Animal defenses. I. Title. II. Series. QL759. W55 2009 591. 47—dc22 2008040116 Chelsea House books are available at speci al discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions.Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at http://www. chelseahouse. com Text design by Kerry Casey Cover design by Ben Peterson Printed in the United States Bang EJB 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. All links and Web addresses were checked and verified to be correct at the time of publication. Because of the dynamic nature of the Web, some addresses and links may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid.Caption: A thorny devil, native to Australia, is camouflaged in shades of desert browns and tans. The spikes on its body also help protect it from predators. Contents 1 Avoiding Danger 2 Escape Artists 3 Animal Armor 4 Bad Smells, Bad Tastes, and Powerful Poisons 5 Venomous Stings and Bites 6 Mimicry  Fighting Back Glossary Biblio graphy Further Resources Picture Credits Index About the Author 7 22 38 55 73 91 107 124 126 128 130 131 136 1 Avoiding Danger A cheetAh skulks through the tall grass of the African savannah. Head lowered, she stares intently at a herd of gazelles.Her spotted coat blends in with the dry grass, making her nearly invisible as she sneaks up on her prey. The gazelles continue to graze. Between bites of grass, each one snaps up its head to check out its surroundings. Bright eyes scan the horizon. Ears swivel to pick up the slightest sound. Nostrils flare to sniff for the scent of a cheetah, lion, or other hungry predator. Suddenly, a few gazelles snort and stamp their feet. The entire herd goes on high alert. The black bands that run down the gazelles’ sides quiver, passing along the message: â€Å"Danger! Then, some of the gazelles begin bouncing as if on pogo sticks. They spring high in the air with their backs arched and legs stiff. They land on all fours, and then leap again. The cheetah pauses. The gazelles have seen her. It is impossible to launch a surprise attack now. The cheetah depends on one short-lived, startling burst of speed to chase down a gazelle. The gazelles, however, also run fast, hitting speeds of up to 40 miles (64 km) an hour—and they can keep up this speed much longer  8 AnimAl deFenses This female springbok, a kind of antelope, bounces into the air with an rched back and stiff legs. This motion is called stotting or pronking. Springbok typically use it to show predators that they are ? t and hard to catch. Research shows that cheetahs often avoid hunting stotting springbok. than a cheetah can. Their odd jumping behavior, called stotting, signals to the cheetah, â€Å"We have seen you, so do not bother to chase us—we are strong and healthy and can outrun you. † If the cheetah is lucky, perhaps she will find a gazelle fawn hidden in the grass. However, the fawns have tawny coats and can lie still as a stone for a long time.Plus, the fawns’ mothers are Avoiding danger 9 careful not to give the cheetah any clues as to where their young are hiding. Like most wild animals, gazelles are always watching out for danger. Most often, that danger is another animal—in this case, a hungry cheetah. Even domestic animals, such as horses, sheep, and chickens, are on the alert for any threat to their safety. Being alert is the first step an animal takes to defend itself. It is one of many behaviors that animals use to survive in a world filled with predators. Much of an animal’s self-defense behavior comes from within it.Most animals are born â€Å"knowing† how to defend themselves. Scientists call this inborn knowledge instinct. selF-deFense Over millions of years, the many different kinds, or species, of animals have developed ways of defending themselves. Animals might use protective colors, sharp spines, and excellent hearing. An animal has its defensive tools at the ready all the time, whether or not it is in danger. They are known as primary defenses. The gazelle’s primary defenses include its horns, its keen senses, and its speed. A gazelle fawn’s primary defenses include its ability to lie still and its concealing coat color.An animal’s primary defenses are backed up by behaviors known as secondary defenses. The animal uses its secondary defenses when it confronts a predator. A gazelle uses secondary defenses when it stamps, stots, and runs away—or if it is caught by a cheetah or other predator. Gazelle fawns use the most basic form of self-defense: avoid being noticed. Like the fawns, many animals evade detection by hiding, freezing, or blending in with their habitat. This is called crypsis (crypsis comes from a Greek word that means â€Å"hidden. †) 10 AnimAl deFenses lying low Many animals hide to avoid being noticed.Turn over a stone or stir a pile of leaves to reveal a world of hidden creatures: a worm squir ming in the sudden burst of light, a rolled-up pill bug, a centipede quickly scurrying out of sight, tiny springtails, and even tinier mites. Trees and other plants harbor animals seeking hideaways. Insects hide under leaves, along stems, and under scraps of bark. Pale trails winding through a leaf show where the larvae, or young, of various moths and beetles are feeding safely between the leaf’s layers. Etchings in a tree’s bark show where beetles have bored inside to feed on its wood while under cover.Many insects even alter plants to create places to hide. Some caterpillars roll up leaves and seal them shut with sticky silk. Weaver ants seal leaves together with silk made by their larvae, which the adult ants use as if they were glue sticks. Some insects, including species of aphids, midges, and wasps, spur plants to grow protective cases. These cases, called galls, are hard knobs with spongy interiors. As larvae feed on the plant, their saliva induces the growth of these galls. Larger animals also take advantage of the safe shelter provided by plants, rocks, and other parts of their habitat.Birds hide their nests amid grasses, tuck them among branches, bury them deep inside burrows, and conceal them in tree holes. Staying hidden for many hours is not necessary for an animal that can get to a hiding place quickly. Many small rodents feed close to their burrows so they can dive into them at the first glimpse of a hawk overhead. Crabs scuttle swiftly beneath stones. The pancake tortoise of East Africa, which has a flat, flexible shell, wedges itself into a crevice between rocks. The turtle braces its legs so that it cannot easily be pulled out of its hiding spot. The chuckwalla, a lizard that lives n the southwestern United Avoiding danger 11 HIDING BY DAY OR NIGHT many species make use of hideaways only when they are inactive. raccoons, for example, are largely nocturnal— they are most active at night. during most daylight hours, they ar e curled up in a tree cavity, a woodpile, or even an attic, fast asleep. At night, they emerge to look for food. their meals often include other nocturnal animals, such as slugs or mice. As a result of being nocturnal, an animal not only avoids predators that are active by day, but also avoids competing with animals that eat the same food. wo different species that both feed on insects, for example, can use the same resource without competing directly if one is part of the day crew and the other takes the night shift. of course, some predators also are active at night. A nocturnal moth, for example, may be caught by a bat. the bat, in turn, may be caught by an owl. States, also darts into crevices. Then, it inflates its lungs with air so that its body swells up, wedging it in place. A liFe in hiding A variety of species go to the extreme: They spend most of their lives in hiding.Over millions of years, they have adapted to surviving in habitats that keep them under cover. Many kinds of clams, for example, burrow into sandy or muddy beaches. Some species live just under the surface, while others dig deeply. A large clam called the geoduck can bury itself 3 feet (1 meter) below the surface. By burrowing, a clam protects itself from being washed away by waves, drying out in the sun, and being an easy target for 12 AnimAl deFenses predators. It does not need to leave its hiding place to find food. Instead, the clam opens its paired shells and reaches up through the sand with a body part called a siphon.The siphon takes in water, which the clam filters to extract particles of food. If the clam senses vibrations rippling through the sand, it quickly pulls in its siphon. Vibrations may mean a predator is investigating its hiding spot. The clam also may burrow more deeply to escape. Some clams can dig quickly: The razor clam can move 9 inches (22 centimeters) in 1 minute. Other animals find safety in living underground, too. Earthworms spend much of the day burrowing through the soil. If caught by a bird’s probing beak, an earthworm struggles to resist being yanked out of the ground.It grabs onto the walls of its burrow with bristles that line its sides. The worm’s hind end also bulges to help clamp it in place. A mole digging through the earth can send earthworms scuttling out of the soil. Moles eat earthworms and even store them for later, biting them and then stuffing them into holes in their tunnels. A mole rarely needs to poke its head above ground; there, an owl, fox, or weasel might pounce on it. stAying still A prey animal that senses danger does not always seek a hiding place. Some species first try another way of avoiding detection: freezing in place.Many predators can easily spot prey in motion, but are less likely to notice a still animal, especially if it blends into the background. A moving rabbit out in the open, for example, is an easy target for a hawk. To avoid being spotted, the rabbit crouches low and freezes in place. Its stillness reduces the chances of it being seen, and its low profile makes it look more like a mound of dirt than a round-bodied animal sitting on the ground. Avoiding danger 13 ESCAPE HATCHES Animals dig dwellings underground for many reasons. A den or burrow provides relief from extreme heat or cold. t can serve as a nursery for helpless young. some animals store food in their burrows. A handy burrow also provides a safe spot when a predator appears. prairie dogs, which live on the grasslands of the united states, build extensive communities of burrows called towns. At the sight of a predator, a prairie dog immediately alerts its family and neighbors with shrill barks. in a ? ash, the prairie dogs dive into their burrows and out of sight. their tunnels, which spread far, wide, and deep, provide the animals with many hideouts and escape routes. iggers, such as chipmunks and ground squirrels, also include emergency exits in their homes. that way, there’s an escape route if a badger digs up the burrow or a snake slips into it. African mammals called meerkats have hundreds of tunnels called â€Å"bolt holes† in their territory. if a predator appears, they run, or â€Å"bolt,† into them. Ground squirrels, like this marmot, create dwellings underground in part to hide quickly from predators. 14 AnimAl deFenses In much the same way, newborn deer lie still among ferns and grasses while their mothers spend time away from them, feeding on leaves.The fawns, born without any odor that would lure a predator, rely on their stillness as well as their spots to avoid detection on the sun-dappled woodland floor. Pronghorn antelope fawns remain still for hours on end, lying in tall grass to escape the notice of coyotes and eagles. The chicks of spotted sandpipers and many other birds also crouch and freeze when danger threatens. Though many crouch-and-freeze creatures also benefit from coloration that helps them blend in with their background, s uch camouflage is not a requirement for â€Å"the freeze† to work.A squirrel, for example, is usually a highly visible animal as it busily dashes along branches or springs across a lawn. Should a dog or other animal threaten it, however, the squirrel scrambles up a tree trunk, circles to the side of the trunk opposite the predator, and freezes. If the predator follows it, the squirrel scurries to the other side of the trunk and freezes again. Using this spiraling method, the squirrel keeps a blockade between it and its attacker—even if the attacker is incapable of climbing the tree in pursuit. hiding in plAin sightCamouflage, also known as cryptic coloration, is the one-sizefits-all defense in the world of animals. Animals as small as insects and as large as the boldly patterned giraffe—towering at a height of 18 feet (6 m)—depend on their cryptic colorations to help them blend in. Colors and patterns may camouflage an animal not only by helping it blend in, but also by breaking up its shape. That way, a predator does not recognize it at first. An animal’s coloring can Avoiding danger 15 Walkingsticks are insects that look like twigs. They are able to blend in with trees to avoid predators. ide the roundness of its body, making it look flat. Colors and patterns also can help hide an animal’s shadow. Cryptic coloration can be as simple as the sandy fur of a fennec fox, which blends with the tones of its desert home. It can be as complex as the camouflage of a giant swallowtail caterpillar, which looks like a bird dropping on a leaf. The fox â€Å"hides in plain sight,† while the caterpillar stays safe by resembling something that does not interest a predator one bit. Many cryptically colored animals just need to freeze or lie low to be protected. A pointy thorn bug sitting on a stem, for example, looks like a thorn.A grasshopper or katydid that 16 AnimAl deFenses resembles a leaf just needs to sit on a leafy twig to blend in and look like a leaf. Some animals go one step further and behave in ways that enhance their camouflage. Walkingsticks are part of this cast of animal actors. These long, thin insects naturally resemble twigs, complete with sharply bent limbs and bumpy joints. They are closely related to the fantastically shaped leaf insects, which have body parts shaped and colored to look like leaves—right down to leaf veins, nibbled edges, and brown spots of decay.But walkingsticks don’t just look like sticks, and leaf insects don’t just look like leaves. They act like them, too. While sitting still they sway slowly, mimicking the motion of a twig or leaf in the breeze. Leaf insects have been known to dangle from a stem by one leg, as if they were leaves about to drop. If threatened, many leaf insects will fall to the ground, landing on their feet and scuttling away. Other insects imitate plant galls, seeds, and flowers. The African flower mantis takes on the col oring of the flower on which it lives. This is also true of the Malaysian orchid mantis, which has legs that look like flower petals.The camouflage patterns on many moths’ wings imitate patterns of tree bark and the lichen growing on it. Moths instinctively use this camouflage to their advantage. The pine hawk-moth perches on a tree with its head pointing up. This lines up the stripes on its wings with the bark’s furrows. The waved umber moth perches sideways on trees. That’s because its stripes run across its wings. The sideways perch lines up these stripes with the bark’s pattern. Among the insects, caterpillars excel at combining cryptic coloration with deceptive behavior. A caterpillar’s job is to eat and grow while avoiding being eaten by birds.A caterpillar must also avoid tiny wasps eager to lay their eggs on it. The eggs hatch into larvae that feed on the caterpillar. Avoiding danger 1 A Costa Rican rainforest species of moth caterpillar c alled Navarcostes limnatis looks like a diseased leaf covered with fungus. It adds a rocking motion to this disguise so that it appears to be quivering in a breeze. Another caterpillar, the larva of a butterfly called the meander leafwing, crawls to the tip of a leaf after hatching. It eats the parts of the leaf that stick out on either side of the sturdy rib running down the leaf’s iddle. Then it sits on the rib so that it looks like a bit of nibbled leaf itself. The caterpillar will continue to eat the leaf over the next few days. It binds scraps of leaf to the rib with silk secreted by its body and hides among them. Insects are stars when it comes to combining camouflage with a convincing performance, but other animals also use this tactic. The leafy sea dragon of Australian waters is one example. It has frills that make it look like a bit of drifting seaweed. The sea dragon also rocks slowly and rhythmically, mirroring the swaying of seaweed in its habitat.Half a world aw ay, the leaf fish of South America’s Amazon River floats slowly on its side, its flattened, brown body resembling a dead leaf drifting in the water. Its snout looks like the leaf’s stalk. This behavior allows the fish to avoid predators and hunt its own prey without being noticed. Many tree frogs also imitate leaves or other plant parts. The red-eyed tree frog, for example, snuggles into the curve of a leaf during the day. Its bright green body blends with the leaf. The frog tucks its legs and big orange feet close to its blueand-yellow sides so that the vivid colors are hidden.Finally, it closes its bulging red eyes, hiding them under gold-flecked lids. The frog can see through these lids to watch for danger as it naps. Even some larger animals manage to pull off the trick of resembling an object. The potoo, a nocturnal bird of Central and South America, spends the day perched on a dead branch. Its feathers, mottled with brown and gray, work as camouflage. 18 AnimAl d eFenses The potoo holds its body at an angle that makes it look like just another dead branch. On the other side of the globe, a look-alike nocturnal bird called the tawny frogmouth poses the same way.Another bird actor is the American bittern, which lives in wetlands. When it is startled, it stretches its long, thin neck and body and points its sharp bill to the sky. In this position, the streaks of brown running down its breast blend in with the tall, grassy plants around it. The bittern also sways gently, just like the breeze-ruffled reeds. chAnging color Sometimes, an animal’s camouflage won’t work if the habitat changes or an animal travels to another part of its habitat. A number of animals solve this problem by changing color. Some animals change color as the seasons change.The willow ptarmigan, an Arctic bird, is mottled brown in summer and blends in with the ground, rocks, and plants. In winter, it is white with a black tail and nearly disappears against a bac kground of snow and occasional twigs. In spring and fall, as it molts (sheds) old feathers and grows new ones, the bird is a mixture of brown and white—just like the patchy snow-spotted world around it. Some animals change color within weeks or days. Many caterpillars change color as they grow, shedding a skin of one color to reveal another that can protect them better as they move about more to feed.Crab spiders can change color in just a few days to match the flowers in which they lurk. Bark bugs of Central America grow darker when moistened with water. This helps them blend in with rain-darkened tree trunks. Some reptiles, fish, and other creatures can change color in just a few hours. Many tree frogs, for example, can go from green to brown. Horned lizards of the southwestern United States can Avoiding danger 19 The feathers of the willow ptarmigan change color with the seasons: white in winter months to blend with snow and brown or mixed colors in other months to blend w ith plants and the earth.This enables the bird to often be naturally camou? aged from predators. change their brown and gray tones to best fit their surroundings. The flounder, a flat-bodied fish with its eyes on the side of its head, lies on the ocean floor and takes on the color and texture of the sandy, stony surface in as little as two hours. Other animals work even faster. Many octopuses, cuttlefish, and squids can change color in less than one second. An octopus can change from solid red to multiple colors, or even white, to match its background. It can also change the texture of its skin to resemble sand or stones.A cuttlefish can make light and dark waves ripple down its back, reflecting the way sunlight shimmers in water. 20 AnimAl deFenses mAsking: AnimAls in disguise Some species push the defense tactics of hiding and camouflage to the max by actually wearing costumes. This behavior is known as masking. The decorator crab, found in the eastern Pacific Ocean, is named for its habit of disguising itself. The crab picks seaweed, anemones, and sponges and puts them on its shell. Bristles on the shell work like Velcro to hold these items in place. In this disguise, the crab looks like another weed-covered rock.When the crab outgrows its shell and sheds it during molting, it takes the decorations off its old shell and plants them on its new one. Decorator crabs share the eastern Pacific with sharp-nosed crabs, which sometimes stick seaweed on the sharp front edges of their shells. Other species of crab disguise themselves, too. The camouflage crab of New Zealand adorns its shell and legs with seaweed (and sometimes snacks on bits of it). The sponge crab uses its hind legs to hold a live sponge on its shell. The shell is covered with algae, which has settled on the shell just as it would on a stone.Hermit crabs sometimes plant anemones on their shells. Anemones have stinging cells in their tentacles, so they provide an extra layer of protection for the cra b. In return, the crab takes them to new feeding grounds, and the anemones can dine on tidbits from the crab’s meals. Another species, the anemone crab, has claws equipped with hooks for gripping anemones. Any predator that approaches this crab will have the stinging anemones waved in its face. Some insects also use masking. A wavy-lined emerald caterpillar cuts petals from the flowers it feeds on.Then it attaches the petals to spines on its body and fastens them in place with silk. When the petals wilt, it replaces them. This habit has earned the caterpillar the alternative name of camouflaged looper. Other Avoiding danger 21 kinds of looper caterpillars mask themselves with flowers, leaves, and bits of bark. The larvae of many kinds of caddis fly mask themselves in camouflaged cases. The cases are made out of material from the larva’s freshwater habitat: grains of sand, small stones and shells, leaves, twigs, bits of wood, or pine needles.The materials are bound toge ther with sticky or silky fluids produced by the larva’s body. A hooked pair of legs at the larva’s hind end hang on to the case as the larva creeps about in search of food. Hiding, camouflage, and masking help animals avoid predators. Animals’ behaviors and bodies have changed over millions of years in ways that help them survive. Scientists call these changes adaptations. The process of change over time is called evolution. Predators have also evolved so that they could keep finding prey. When they do, the prey must turn to another form of self-defense. 2 Escape Artists iding, stAnding still, and camouflage help many animals avoid predators, but these defenses do not work all the time. Predators may find hiding places, stumble over prey lying stockstill, or discover that a leaf is actually an insect in disguise. Prey animals need a second line of defense. For many animals, this defense is escape. Escape often means fleeing as quickly as possible. Escape also m ay involve behaviors that buy an animal a few extra seconds to get away. This could be startling a predator or distracting it. Some animals go so far as to actually lose body parts to aid in their escape.A few appear to give up by playing dead. Fleeing An animal without a burrow or other hiding place can choose between fight and flight. It can stand its ground and face a predator or make a quick getaway. Fighting may be used as a last resort; fleeing is the first response to danger. Many long-legged, hoofed animals literally run for their lives, relying on sheer speed to escape. Horses, for example, can gallop at speeds of 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour or more. 22 escape Artists 23 Deer race away just as quickly. The pronghorn of western North American grasslands can run about 50 miles (80 km) per hour.This burst of speed may enable an animal to leave its pursuer in the dust. If the predator persists, however, many hoofed animals can run fast for several miles. A pronghorn can r un at 35 miles (56 km) per hour for about 4 miles (6 km). Running works well for speedy four-legged animals. It also serves some two-legged ones. The ostrich, the world’s largest bird at 8 feet tall (2. 4 m), cannot fly. Other than lions and jackals, few animals prey on it. If pursued, an ostrich can outrun and outlast most predators. It can cruise at speeds up to 40 miles (64 km) an hour and run at a slightly slower speed for 20 minutes orWhen ? eeing a predator, the basilisk lizard musters up enough energy to be able to run on water. 24 AnimAl deFenses more. The rhea, a flightless bird of South America, can also run swiftly and turn on a dime. Roadrunners of the southwestern United States deserts can fly, but prefer to run. They can zip along at 18. 6 miles (30 km) an hour. The basilisk lizard normally gets around on four legs, but switches to two when it’s threatened. The lizard lives in trees in rainforests of Central America. When a predator creeps up on it, the b asilisk drops out of the tree and lands in the water.Then, it rises on its hind legs and runs across the surface of the water. The basilisk dashes about 15 feet (4. 5 m) in three seconds flat before dropping forward to swim with all four legs. A kangaroo cannot run, but it can leap away from danger. A red kangaroo can hop at 20 miles (32 km) an hour for long distances, and 30 miles (48 km) an hour for a short distance. Some people have clocked red kangaroos going even faster. Grasshoppers and crickets leap to safety, too. Beach hoppers, which are related to pill bugs, pop into the air by snapping their abdomens and pushing with four of their hind legs.Swimming, slithering, climbing, and flying from danger all work just as well as running and jumping. An octopus, for example, escapes predators by filling its body with water, then pushing the water out through a tube-like body part called a siphon. This motion, called jetting, lets an octopus scoot away quickly in any direction. As it jets away, it emits a cloud of ink to hide its escape and further confuse its pursuer. Shellfish called scallops also jet away from danger. When a scallop senses that a sea star is near, it opens and shuts its shell, forcing out jets of water that scoot it away.Another ocean creature, the flying fish, escapes predators by swimming quickly just under the water’s surface, then streaking up and out of the water while stretching out a pair of wing-like fins. It sails through the air for up to 20 seconds before diving back into the water. escape Artists 25 Some animals roll away from danger. Wheel spiders, which live in Africa’s Namib Desert, start their escape from predatory wasps by running. Then, they suddenly fold their legs and flip sideways to roll down sand dunes like wheels. They can roll at a speed of about 3 feet (1 m) per second.The caterpillar of the mother-of-pearl moth also goes for a spin to escape by curling into a circle and then pushing off. A species of mantis shrimp, found along some Pacific shores, rolls up and pushes itself along in a series of backward somersaults. Many predators, however, also have speed on their side. Their prey must often use other tactics besides pure speed to make their escape. One way to make a pursuer work harder is to zigzag. A rabbit running from a coyote, for example, does not run endlessly in a straight line. Instead, it dodges back and forth, forcing the coyote to change direction and make sharp turns, too.Zigzagging is easier for a rabbit, which is small, than for the larger coyote. The coyote also cannot tell when the rabbit will dodge this way or that, so it cannot plan its next move. In this way, the rabbit makes the chase more difficult and tiring for the coyote. Though a coyote may still succeed in catching its prey, there is a chance that it may tire out, give up, and go look for an easier meal. Other animals also dart and dash when chased. A herd of impala, slender antelopes of African grass lands, not only run from a predator but also zigzag in all directions.Impala also leap over each other as they run, sometimes springing as high as 10 feet (3 m) into the air. This explosion of activity startles and confuses a predator. It also makes it difficult for a predator to chase any one animal. Zigzagging mixed with freezing can confuse predators, too. Frogs and grasshoppers will jump in one direction, then freeze, only to pop off in another direction if the predator comes near. A predator may not be able to focus on its prey with all the 26 AnimAl deFenses unexpected starts and stops. Likewise, a cottontail rabbit may go from zigzagging to freezing as it flees.When it runs, it flashes its puffy white tail like a target. When it freezes, it sits on its tail. The predator may lose track of the rabbit because the tail has vanished. stArtling A predAtor Anyone who has jumped when startled knows how a predator might feel when its prey suddenly bursts into motion after being nearl y invisible. The shock of the prey’s sudden reappearance is ELUDING BATS Bats hunt on the wing at night. they send out pulses of sound and listen for the echoes to locate their prey. this process is called echolocation. using it, a bat can pinpoint even tiny insects in ? ight. nsects have developed escape behaviors to avoid echolocation. some moths can hear the high-pitched sounds that bats send out. A moth may ? y in loops to avoid being detected. if a moth senses that a bat is close, it will simply fold its wings and drop from the sky. some moths go one step further and jam the bat’s signals. A moth does this by making sounds that are similar to the echoes that the bat is trying to hear. this can throw the bat off course just long enough to help the moth escape. scientists have recently discovered that some moths make sounds that warn bats not to eat them because they taste bad.Bats quickly learn to avoid these moths after a few taste tests. some species of moth that do not taste bad imitate the sounds of the foul-tasting ones, which tricks the bats into steering clear of them, too. escape Artists 2 enough to make a predator flinch or pause for a fraction of a second. That little bit of extra time can let an animal escape with its life. A variety of animals even sport special colors or body parts to help them startle predators. These colors and parts are used in behaviors called startle displays. A startle display may be used to fend off an attack right from the start.Many startle displays of this type involve suddenly flashing a vivid color or pattern. This is the tactic used by the io moth, which lives in North America. At rest, an io moth is pale yellow or brown. But if a bird attempts to grab it, the io moth quickly moves its forewings. This reveals two hind wings boldly colored with a pair of big black spots surrounded by a circle of yellow. These spots look like eyes, and are called eyespots. To a bird, the display of eyespots may look l ike the sudden appearance of a larger bird, such as an owl— its own predator.The startled bird may fly away rather than risk its life, or it may pause long enough for the moth to escape. Eyespots are found on the wings of hundreds of species of moths and butterflies. They are also seen on many caterpillars. A swallowtail butterfly’s plump green body has two huge yellow eyespots on its humped front end. This makes it look like a snake. When threatened, the vine hawk moth’s brown caterpillar curls into a â€Å"C† and bulges its yellow eyespots. A Malaysian hawk moth caterpillar puffs up its front end when threatened. This makes its eyespots open wide.It also snaps its head back and forth as if it were a snake about to strike. Other insects flash startling eyespots, too. The African flower mantis, which usually blends in with the shapes and colors of its flowery habitat, flares out wings with eyespots when it is threatened. The eyed click beetle has two blac k eyespots behind its head. An Australian moth caterpillar has eyespots that are normally hidden in the folds of its body. When it flexes its hind end, the folds open like lids to reveal the â€Å"eyes. † 28 AnimAl deFenses Patches of color that do not look like eyes also make effective startle displays.These colors are often hidden until an animal flees. The sudden appearance of this ? ash coloration can stop a predator in its tracks just long enough to let the prey escape. A red-eyed tree frog, for example, usually blends in with the leaf on which it sleeps. If a predator bothers it, the frog first pops open its enormous red eyes. Then it leaps away, turning from a plain green frog into a rainbow of color as its orange-footed legs unfold and its blue and yellow sides appear. This sudden splash of color startles the predator and buys the frog time to get away. Octopuses also abruptly give up on camouflage when they are under attack.An alarmed octopus can burst into startling colors or patterns in less than a second. A fish or turtle that sees A ? ash of the red-eyed tree frog’s large red eyes can surprise predators, and give it time to escape. Escape Artists 29 BLUFFING Startle displays are often part of a behavior called bluf? ng. Bluf? ng is a tactic used by animals to make them â€Å"look tough† to a predator. An animal that may be completely harmless acts as if it is actually quite ferocious and possibly dangerous. A predator may back off rather than risk getting injured. Many lizards combine a startle display with a bluff.A chameleon facing a predator, for example, may suddenly turn dark as it puffs up its body to look larger. It also hisses, often revealing a brightly colored mouth. The frilled lizard of Australia confronts predators with a wide-open yellow or pink mouth. It adds to this display by opening huge ? aps of skin on its neck, which are splotched with red, orange, black, and white. The big frills make the lizard look much larger and more intimidating. Another Australian lizard, the bearded dragon, likewise gapes its yellow-lined mouth and raises a beard of spiky skin under its chin. The beard also turns blue-black. ts intended meal suddenly turn black or zebra-striped is often scared away. Many kinds of stick insects, grasshoppers, butterflies, moths, and other insects also flash bright colors when fleeing a predator. The colors disappear when they leap or fly to a new spot and fold their wings. They then blend in with their surroundings as they sit perfectly still. Sometimes just a spot of color can do the trick. The shingleback skink of Australia is a stumpy, short-legged lizard. Its earth-tone colors usually hide it. However, the skink startles potential predators by suddenly opening its mouth and sticking out its thick, blue tongue.It also huffs and puffs, hissing like a 30 AnimAl deFenses snake. Another Australian lizard that uses this startle display is the blue-tongued skink, named for its tu rquoise tongue. An Australian legless lizard called the excitable delma does not have startling colors, but it still spooks predators with its behavior. If bothered, this animal twists and turns its body violently as it slithers away. This odd behavior may startle and confuse a predator. deFlecting An AttAck Startle displays and bluffs can help an animal escape in the nick of time.Another tactic is to trick a predator into attacking the â€Å"wrong† part of its prey or misjudging which direction the prey will go as it tries to escape. An animal can live to see another day if it can keep its head and body safe by getting a predator to merely nip its tail instead. Colors, markings, and behaviors that encourage a predator to focus on the wrong end of its prey are called de? ection displays because they redirect, or deflect, an attack. Deflection displays often make use of eyespots. Unlike eyespots that are flashed to scare a predator, these eyespots show on an animal’s hi nd end at all times.They draw a predator’s attention away from the prey’s head. As a predator lunges, it focuses on the prominent eyespot at the prey’s tail end instead of on the prey’s head. The prey’s actual eyes may be hidden among stripes or spots. Eyespots like these are common among fish, especially coral-reef species such as butterfly fish. The four-eyed butterfly fish, for example, has false eyes near its tail that look just like its real eyes. The threadfin butterfly fish has a dark spot on a fin toward its rear. A dark stripe on its head runs through its actual eye, which make it less noticeable.Angled stripes on its sides also guide a predator’s eye toward its tail. If attacked, each fish may lose a bit of its tail, but escape with its life. Escape Artists 31 A juvenile emperor angel? sh has an eyespot near its tail, which makes a predator focus on the wrong end. Juvenile emperor angelfish, another coral-reef species, are covered with loops of white and light blue on a dark background. These loops swirl around a large eyespot near the angelfish’s tail, while its actual eyes disappear among the stripes on its head. A predator’s gaze is naturally pulled to the wrong end.Insects also use eyespots in their deflection displays. These eyespots are always visible, not like the eyespots used to startle predators. They are also smaller and closer to the wings’ edges. Many species of butterfl ies sport such eyespots on their hind wings. A bird that snaps at the wrong end of such a butterfly leaves notches in the wings but loses out on a meal. Some 32 AnimAl deFenses butterfl ies have hind wings tipped with fake legs and antennae. Scientists have noticed that some of these butterfl ies will even creep backward along a stem for a second or two after landing, which might help fool a nearby predator.One butterfly found in Malaysia has such a convincing â€Å"head† on its hind end that it is som etimes called the back-to-front butterfly. Other insects rely on false heads to dodge predators, too. A lanternfly of Southeast Asia has antennae lookalikes dangling from the ends of its wings near a pair of eyespots. When the wings are folded, the lanternfly’s tail looks like a head. The insect even walks backward when it senses danger. Some lanternflies turn this trick around and have heads that look like tails. The giant desert centipede of the southwestern United States is not an insect, but it uses the false-head trick, too.Its tail end looks just like its head, right down to antennae-like attachments. If a predator grabs the centipede’s hind end because it mistakes it for the head, the centipede can twist around and bite it. The shingleback skink, a lizard of Australia, also uses this tactic. Its stumpy head and tail look nearly identical. A predator that grabs the wrong â€Å"head† will be surprised to see the skink scurry off in the opposite direction. M any snakes also use the two-headed trick. They roll up in a ball and hide their heads in their coils when under attack. Then they wave their tails to threaten the predator and deflect its attack.These snakes sometimes have bright colors on their tails that enhance this trick. Southeast Asian snakes called kraits, for example, wave red tails. The ring-necked snake of North America coils its tail to display the bright orange-red underside. The color and coiling can distract a predator. In Africa, the shovel-snouted snake coils its tail, too. Other kinds of snakes even jab their tails at their attackers as if they were going to bite them. Escape Artists 33 Tail markings are common among animals, and some scientists are taking a second look at them to see which ones may be used as deflection displays.The black tip on a weasel’s tail, for example, may help trick a hawk into trying to grab the skinny tail instead of the body or head. LOSING LIMBS AND TAILS Some animals whose tails are grabbed have a surprise in store for their attackers. Shockingly, their tails break off while their owners escape. Many North American species of skinks, for example, have bright blue tails when they are young. A skink’s blue tail works as a deflection display to protect its head. But if a predator actually seizes the tail, it breaks off. The skink runs away, leaving its tail wriggling and squirming behind it. The predator gets nothing but a bony mouthful.The skink’s tail later grows back. The broken-tail trick is used by many kinds of lizards, even ones that do not have brightly colored tails. Geckos, anoles, and iguanas all can shed their tails. This is also true of some legless lizards, which are called â€Å"glass snakes† because of the way their tails shatter when they break. The predator doesn’t break these lizards’ tails: The lizards do it themselves. The movement of muscles in the tail causes one of the tailbones to snap in half. Some r odents can also shed part of their tails. Spiny rats, which live in parts of South and Central America, have tails that break off.Gerbils and some species of rats and mice lose the outer layer of skin and fur on their tails. The spiny rats are left with stumps, but rodents that shed their tails’ covering lose the rest of the tail later. Unlike lizards, rodents do not grow back the missing parts. Tails are not the only body parts shed by animals. Some animals dispose of their limbs instead. Some species of octopus 34 AnimAl deFenses can release some of their arms if they are attacked. The wriggling arms distract the predator and let the prey escape. Large tropical centipedes also toss off legs if they feel threatened.The lost legs writhe and even make squeaky noises to distract predators. Octopuses grow new limbs. Centipedes don’t, but they have so many legs that the loss of a few doesn’t harm them. A crab also can drop a claw or leg if attacked. Some species pin ch their attackers first and then release the pinched claw. The crab runs away while the predator frantically tries to remove the painful claw. Lobsters also release their claws in this way. Crabs and lobsters replace the claws over time as they molt and grow new outer coverings called exoskeletons. Insects and spiders, such as the daddy longlegs, have legs that are easily pulled off by predators.They do not grow new legs, but get around just fine with the remaining ones. Some geckos save their skins by losing them. These geckos are covered with an outer layer of skin that is only loosely connected to the skin underneath. The outer layer slips off if a predator grabs them. The gecko scurries away as if it had simply popped out of a sleeping bag. Birds cannot shed their skins, but they can lose feathers. Normally, a bird’s feathers cannot easily be pulled out. However, a predator that grabs a bird’s tail is often left with a mouthful of feathers. This feather loss is ca lled fright molting.Some scientists think it may help a bird wriggle out of the clutches of an owl or other predator, just as a butterfly sheds wing scales as it struggles to escape a spider’s web. They also think that a bird can fright molt in midair, leaving a burst of feathers behind it that might deflect a hawk’s attack. Though many animals lose parts of their outsides to defend themselves, some species of sea cucumbers lose their insides instead. These plump, slippery ocean animals usually are protected escape Artists 35 by sticky mucus covering their bodies. If a sea cucumber is attacked, it expels its internal organs from its hind end.The sticky guts can trap a crab or startle a bigger predator. Then the sea cucumber creeps away while its attacker either struggles with the messy organs or eats them. Within a few weeks, the sea cucumber grows new organs. plAying deAd A variety of animals escape death by playing dead. This defense is called death feigning. Animals that play dead may seem as if they are offering themselves up on a platter. Yet, many predators hunt prey in response to movement. Many animals also do not eat prey that they have not killed. By playing dead, an animal may make its attacker lose interest.A predator may also get careless if its prey seems to be dead. It may relax its grip and give the prey a chance to escape. Many insects are known to feign death. These insect actors include many species of beetles, grasshoppers, stick insects, and caterpillars. Some insects curl up and remain still. Others let go of branches and drop to the ground. Certain reptiles, such as chameleons and many tree snakes, also drop to the ground and lie still. Many birds also go limp when caught by a predator, and then instantly â€Å"come back to life† at the fi rst chance for escape. Baby ospreys play dead in the nest when their mother gives a warning call.Going limp and lying still works well for many animals, but a few species deserve A cademy Awards for their death-feigning skills. Among these â€Å"best actors† are the opossum and the hognose snake, both found in North America. An opossum defends itself at first by growling, hissing, and showing its teeth. If this does not frighten away the dog or other 36 AnimAl deFenses The opossum keeps predators away by curling up and playing dead. This pretend act is the reason for the phrase â€Å"playing possum,† which means to fake being dead. escape Artists 3 SEA SLUGS VERSUS SPINY LOBSTER ctopuses, squids, and cuttle? sh squirt ink as they escape. scientists assumed this was a defense behavior. now, because of a recent discovery in sea slugs, researchers are taking a closer look at the ink. certain species of sea slugs also produce inky clouds. the ink was known to taste bad. now, however, scientists know that the ink changes the behavior of a predator called the spiny lobster. chemicals in the ink seem to muddle the lobster’s actions. An â€Å"in ked† lobster gives up its attack on a slug. it may groom itself and begin digging and grabbing at the sand with its claws, as if it were feeding. erhaps other animals’ ink also affects their predators in ways yet to be discovered. animal that is threatening it, the opossum â€Å"drops dead. † It rolls onto its side, rounds its back, and goes limp. Its tongue lolls from its open mouth. Its eyes close halfway—just enough to let it keep track of its predator. An opossum will keep playing dead even if the predator bites it. It does not revive until the predator goes away and the coast is clear again. Hognose snakes also use other defenses before resorting to playing dead. A frightened hognose snake will first raise its head, spread its neck wide, and hiss.Then, it will produce a bad smell. If this act fails, the snake flips onto its back and lies still. Like the opossum, it opens its mouth and lets its tongue hang out. If it is picked up and placed on its bell y, it will keep flipping onto its back and playing dead. 3 Animal Armor A giAnt reptile lumbers through a patch of low-growing plants. It swings its head to the side to snatch a mouthful of leaves. The head is covered with flat, bony plates. Sharp triangles stick out from the sides like horns. Spikes also run down the sides of its broad, domed back, which is shingled with bony plates.This spiky, armored reptile is an ankylosaurus, a dinosaur that lived about 70 million years ago. It was one of the most heavily armored of all dinosaurs. The bony plates in its skin were welded to its skeleton in some places. Even its eyelids contained pads of bone. Few meat-eating dinosaurs could take on this armored dinosaur, which was as long as a school bus and as heavy as a tank. If a predator did try to sink its teeth into an ankylosaurus’s armored back, the reptile had one more defense. It swung its huge tail at its enemy—a tail that ended in a massive club of fused bone.Armor was a primary form of defense for prehistoric animals. Today, many animals still use it. Sharp spikes and spines, tough bony plates, shells, and thick skin help protect animals from the teeth, jaws, and claws of predators. 38 Animal Armor 39 spikes And spines Most insects have thick outer skeletons that serve as armor. These exoskeletons may also boast spikes and spines, which add to an insect’s defense. Many species of crickets and grasshoppers, for example, have spines on their legs and backs. Many ants have spines in the middle of their back that protect them from other insects’ nipping jaws.Praying mantises have spurs on their claws that not only help in grabbing prey, but also inflict wounds on predators. Caterpillars typically have soft bodies. This makes them tempting morsels for predators. But most caterpillars have other ways to protect themselves. Some have spikes or spiny, hair-like A caterpillar’s bristles, like those of this gypsy moth caterpillar, can be used as a defense against predators. 40 AnimAl deFenses bristles. Caterpillars can be so bristly that they appear to have fur. The bristles irritate a predator’s skin and eyes. If a predator accidentally inhales some bristles, they can hurt its nose, throat, and lungs.Other small animals have spines, spikes, and bristles, too. The spined spider has an array of big, red spines on its body. Millipedes have bundles of barbed bristles along their bodies and on their hind ends. These bristles come off and get stuck in the faces and jaws of ants and other predators. Large spiders called tarantulas also defend themselves with bristles. A tarantula uses two of its hind legs to rub bristles off its abdomen, which sends hundreds of the tiny barbed bristles at the attacker. The bristles irritate its eyes, nose, and mouth. Spikes and spines also protect animals that live underwater.The tiny young, or larvae, of crabs have spines that help them float while also repelling fish. Likewise , spiny lobsters are protected by spines that line their antennae and point forward along their shells. The crown-of-thorns sea star is also spiny. This sea star has as many as 19 arms, with sturdy pink or yellow spines poking out of its orange, red, and purple skin. The spines not only pierce skin, but also deliver a dose of painful venom. Sea urchins are like living pincushions. Their hard, round bodies bristle with spines. An urchin uses its spines to help it move. The sharp spines also keep many predators at bay.Some sea urchins’ spines are connected to glands that make venom. Long-spined hatpin urchins have venomous spines that can be up to 12 inches (30 cm) long. Some species of fish and jellyfish hide in hatpin urchins. Stonefish have spines connected to venom glands, too. These are well-camouflaged fish that lie on the seabed in some tropical waters. Their spines pierce and kill predators that grab them. Surgeonfish, which also live in tropical waters, have a pair of Animal Armor 41 Sea urchins, like this common sea urchin found along the coast of Scotland, use their bristles for moving as well as defense. azor-like spines on either side of the tail. The fish slashes at attackers with these spines. Sticklebacks are named for the spines that stick up on their backs. A stickleback can lock these spines in an upright position. The number of spines varies, as shown by their names, which range from three- to fifteen-spined stickleback. The porcupine fish’s name is likewise a clue to its defense. This fish is covered with sharp spines. When threatened, the fish inflates its body with water, and the spines stick out in all directions. This makes the fish too big for some predators to 42 AnimAl deFenses wallow. It startles other predators, which may decide not to tackle the suddenly enlarged prey. A variety of lizards also wear spike-studded armor. The well-named thorny devil resembles a miniature dragon as it strolls across the Australian sand, looking for ants to eat. Spikes of many sizes jut from its legs, sides, tail, back, and head. Despite its name, a thorny lizard is not aggressive. If threatened, it tucks its head between its front legs. This makes a large, spiky bump on its neck stick out—a bump that looks like an even more unappetizing head than the lizard’s actual one.Just as prickly are the horned lizards of dry lands and deserts in parts of Mexico and the southwestern United States. A This thorny devil shows off its spikes of many sizes as it walks along a street in the Northern Territory, Australia. Animal Armor 43 horned lizard has spines running down its sides, back, and tail. Strong, sharp horns jut from its head, making it look like a tiny triceratops. If a predator threatens it, a horned lizard puffs up its body so that its spines stick out. It also turns its head to present its horns. Some species can also squirt blood from the corners of their eyes.The blood can shoot out up to 3 feet (1 m ). The blood tastes bad, so the squirt both surprises and disgusts a predator. The armadillo lizard of southern Africa is also spiky. It makes the most of its spikes by rolling into a ball and grabbing its tail in its mouth when threatened. This turns the lizard into a prickly doughnut. Mammals also make use of spines for protection. Porcupines, for example, fend off predators with spines called quills. There are about 25 species of porcupine. About half of them are found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The rest are found in Central and South America, with one species living in North America.A North American porcupine is covered with about 30,000 long, sharp quills. The quills range from half an inch (1. 3 cm) to 5 inches (12. 7 cm) long. A porcupine warns enemies before they attack. It lowers its head, lifts its tail, and raises its quills and rattles them. It also clacks its teeth, stamps its feet, and gives off a very strong smell from a patch of skin on its back. If the attacker pe rsists, the porcupine will back up toward it and whack it with its tail. The quills, which are barbed at the end, pop off the porcupine and stick in the attacker’s skin.They are painful and can actually drill deeper into skin and muscles over time. The African crested porcupine also warns predators not to mess with it. It shakes its tail, making a loud rattling noise with a clump of special, hollow quills. This porcupine also raises quills on its back that can be up to 20 inches (50 cm) long and are boldly striped in black and white. As a last resort, it will run sideways or backward to jab its quills into its foe. 44 AnimAl deFenses A young lion tries to ? ip over an African crested porcupine in order to kill it in South Africa, where porcupines are the principal diet of Kalahari lions.Hedgehogs are also prickly. A European hedgehog has about 5,000 short, sharp spines. Unlike a porcupine’s quills, hedgehog spines do not come out of the skin when used for jabbing. A he dgehog usually flees or hides in the face of danger. If it is cornered, it raises its spines and then rolls into a ball, protecting its soft belly and its head. A hedgehog can stay rolled up for many hours, and a predator is likely to give up prodding the unresponsive, prickly ball. An uncurled hedgehog, however, may leap backward into a predator or thrust its spiny body into its face. Spines also protect spiny anteaters called echidnas.Echidnas are Australian monotremes (egg-laying mammals) that eat Animal Armor 45 insects, snaring them with their long, sticky tongues. Hundreds of spines cover an echidna’s body. A spine can be about 2 inches (60 mm) long. If threatened, an echidna digs quickly into the ground, leaving only its spiny back showing. It can also roll up into a ball or wedge itself into a crevice among rocks. ARMORED ON THE INSIDE some animals have spikes that come into play only when they are attacked. Among these unusual animals is a mammal called the potto. th e potto is a slow-moving, tree-dwelling African animal. hree bones in its neck end in thick spines that stick up through the skin. the spines usually are buried in its thick fur. however, if threatened, a potto curls up so that its neck bends and the spines stick up. some scientists have recently found that the spines are sensitive to touch and that pottos sometimes rub necks with each other. they are researching to see if pottos use their spines to communicate with one another. A salamander called the sharp-ribbed newt also has hidden spines. its spines are the ends of its ribs. if attacked, the newt pushes its ribs so that they form rows of bumps on its back. here are poison glands on the bumps. the sharp rib tips may also poke out of the newt’s skin. the hero shrew of west Africa does not show its strength; its armor is completely hidden inside. this armor is its oneof-a-kind backbone. each bone in its spine has ridges on it and ? ts snugly into the bones on either side of it. the spine is also very ? exible, and the ribs attached to it are very thick. A person weighing 160 pounds (2 kilograms) can stand on the shrew’s back without harming it. why the shrew’s back is so strong is still a mystery, though its strength may certainly stop some predators’ jaws from crushing it. 6 AnimAl deFenses The army of spiny mammals includes the spiny rats of Central and South America. Some species of spiny rats have sturdy spines, while others have stiff, bristly hair. Spiny rats can also shed their tails to escape a predator’s grip. Another group of spiny mammals, the tenrecs, is found on Madagascar, an island off the east coast of Africa. A tenrec can roll up into a ball like a hedgehog. It also has a powerful bite and will butt its enemy in the neck with its spiny head. shells A sturdy shell is the primary defense for a variety of very slowmoving animals, such as turtles, tortoises, snails, and clams.Turtles and tortoises are reptiles with bodies enclosed in shells. Turtles spend much or all of their lives in water, while tortoises live on land. Both have shells made of two parts: an upper section called the carapace and a lower section called the plastron. The shell is basically a sturdy box made of bone. The inside of the carapace is made of bones fused together. These bones include the turtle’s spine and ribs. The plastron is made of bone, too. In most species, the outside of the carapace is covered with plates made of a tough material called keratin—the same substance that forms hooves and fingernails.These plates are called scutes. Some turtles have just a few scutes embedded in a thick skin on the carapace. Some have none at all. Many turtles can pull their heads, tails, and legs partly or fully into their shells. Box turtles have hinged plastrons, so they can close the openings in their shells. Desert tortoises fold their thick, scaly legs in front of their withdrawn heads to form a shield. A turtle can stay inside its shell for hours, waiting for a predator to give up. It will stay tucked in while a predator sniffs it or rolls it around. Animal Armor 4For slow-moving animals like the snail, a shell is a primary defense. This snail is resting on a leaf, but it can quickly disappear inside its shell if it senses a threat. Snails, clams, mussels, and other mollusks also are protected by shells. The soft, boneless body of a mollusk is covered with a kind of skin called a mantle. In the mantle are glands that produce the materials that form the shell. These materials include minerals that the mollusk gets from its food and from the water, sand, or soil in which it lives. A snail seems to carry its shell on its back, but much of its body is actually inside the shell.If threatened, the snail pulls its head and its muscular foot inside the shell. Many kinds of snails seal the shell’s opening with a hard plate on the end of the foot. Sea snails called limpets have feet that work like suction cups and help them grip rocks firmly so that they are difficult to pry off. 48 AnimAl deFenses INSECT ARMOR most insects’ tough exoskeletons protect their bodies from predators and from drying out. however, some insects—including young insects, such as caterpillars—have soft bodies. they bene? t by adding an extra layer of protective armor. cale insects, for example, are named for the armor they produce. A young scale insect ? nds a spot on a plant where it can feed. then its body oozes substances that form a shield over it. the insect lives underneath this shield. different kinds of scale insects make different kinds of shields. Armored scale insects make hard, waxy shields. soft scale insects make softer waxy coverings, or shields that look like balls of cotton. ground pearls, which are related to scale insects, make round, waxy covers that look like beads. caterpillars of some moths make a sticky, bumpy covering for their bodies.Ants t hat bite these caterpillars end up with jaws full of goo. the ants’ bodies and legs also become coated with the sli